Page 36
RISE OF COMMUNALISM
Emerged as a consequence of modern politics based on politicization and mobilization of an ever increasing number of the Indian people
Can be said to be a by-product of colonialism
Economic stagnation led to intense competition among individuals for government jobs and people used their group identities such as caste and religion to enhance their capacity to compete
Communal politics reserved and allocated jobs for specific castes
British policy of divide and rule
Separate Electorates for Muslim was the final nail in the coffin
Patronage were extended to the communalists
o Communal press dealt lightly
o Communal organizations given encouragement
o 1932 Communal Awards and 1935 Act accepted all communal commands
Another major reason was pronounced Hindu dominance in the Nationalist movement
Both Moderates and Extremists were mostly Hindu hardliners and cited Ancient Hindu Culture as a recourse
Note – Religious pluralism has also been claimed as a reason for communalism by certain authors. It should be remembered that even before British, religious pluralism existed and people lived peacefully. Eg. A Hindu majority under the Mughals
Page 37
WORLD WAR II
Tripuri Session 1939
Bose resigned from Congress Presidentship and formed a separate party ‘Forward Bloc’ within the Congress
Bose disagreed with Congress’s stand on the war and the National Movement in general. Wanted immediate mass struggle.
Finally Congress decided not to support the war
Congress Stand on WWII
Gandhi took a sympathetic view to the Allies cause
The Socialists like SC Bose and JP Narayan argued that the war is imperialist as both sides are fighting to gain control over colonies
Nehru was neutral, argued India should neither join the war, nor take advantage of British vulnerability
Pakistan Resolution – 1940
Taken at Lahore
Muslim league demanded grouping of Muslim dominant areas in independent states with sovereign powers
Two Nation Theory emerged
August Offer – 1940
Dominion Status to India
Expansion of viceroy’s executive council
Setting up of a constituent assembly after the war (first time recognized)
Congress rejected it
Individual Satyagraha – 1941
To show Nationalist patience was not due to weakness
To give another opportunity for British to accept Congress demand
Delhi Chalo Movement
Vinobha Bhave first to offer Satyagraha, followed by Nehru
Cripps Mission 1942
Aim – to secure support of India for the war because of fear of Japanese invasion
Page 38
Promised Dominion Status to India and a constitution making body whose members will be elected by provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in States (i.e. constituent assembly was solely in the hands of Indians)
Option for any province to not join the Indian Union
Also proposed partition of India (right to secede)
Congress rejected it completely because:
o No provision for complete independence
o Representation of states by nominees and not by elected representatives
o Right to provinces to secede as this was against principle of National Unity
o Absence of any plan of immediate transfer of power
o Note – Nehru and Maulana Azad were the official negotiators
Others rejected because:
o Muslim League criticized idea of single Indian Union
o It was against the manner of setting up of Constituent Assembly
o The Hindu Mahasabha opposed the right to secede.
o Depressed class feared that partition would leave them at the mercy of upper caste Hindus
o Sikhs opposed because Punjab would be taken away.
Page 39
QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT 1942
Why not immediately in 1939?
Congress felt cause of Allies was just
Lack of Hindu Muslim unity
The atmosphere was not conducive
So around the end of 1940, Gandhi organized Individual Satyagraha – Delhi Chalo Movement before a full blow movement in 1942
Reasons for QIM
Failure of Cripps Mission in 1942 – showed British wasn’t willing to cede to Congress demands of constitutional autonomy
War impact on rising prices, food shortages, increasing public discontent
Heavy defeats suffered by British in South East Asia boosted the morale.
Aim
Immediate end to British rule
Form a provisional government of India
Sanction of CDM against British rule.
Gandhi’s instruction to different sections
Government servants – do not resign but declare allegiance to Congress
Page 40
Soldiers – do not leave Army but do not fire on compatriot
Student – if confident , leave studies
Princes – support the masses and accept sovereignty of your people
Princely State People – support the ruler only if he is anti-government
Features:
“Do or Die” slogan
8th August 1942 formally launched
9th August all congress leaders arrested
Unprecedented mass upsurge
Satyagrahis offered themselves for arrests
Removal of tracks, blow up of bridges, cutting telephone lines
Over 60,000 arrested by end 1942
There was international demand to release Gandhi by British Communist Party and others like Australian Council of Trade Unions
Parallel Governments sprung up across states –
o Satara in MH
o Ballia in Bihar
o Tamluk in Midnapore
Students from college and school were most visible elements
Women too played important role – Aruna Asif Ali and Sucheta Kriplani were leaders of the underground movement
Peasants , Zamindars (usual fillers)
Erosion of British Loyalists
Underground activities
o By socialists, forward bloc, revolutionaries etc.
o Famous names – Ram Manohar Lohia, JP Narayan, Aruna Asif Ali, Usha Mehta (ran underground radio)
How was violence in QIM tolerated by Congress?
Even in 1920 and 1930-31 movements Congress allowed a considerable room for popular methods. But the element of spontaneity was much larger in 1942
In earlier movements too like CDM, Gandhi signaled launching of the struggle by breaking the Salt Law, refusal to pay rent and revenue by peasants, picketing of liquor shops etc
Theme of QIM was such – Do or Die. This was meant to be the final nail in the coffin of British Rule and people went all out to achieve that
Page 41
Note – Simla Conference in June 1945 ended the confrontation part of QIM that began in 1942
C Rajagopalachari Formula - 1943
Implicit acceptance of Muslim League’s demand for Pakistan
In return ML to endorse Congress demand for complete freedom
ML to cooperate with Congress to form an interim government
Muslim dominant area of NWFP and North East to decide by Plebiscite to form Pakistan
Muslim League response:
o Wanted Congress to accept the 2-Nation theory
o Only Muslims to vote in the plebiscite
o Opposed the idea of a Common Centre
o Wasn’t interested in Indian Independence, only Pakistan
Shimla Conference 1945 (Wavell Plan)
Aim – reconstruction of the executive council which would act as an interim government. Main proposals:
o All members except the governor-general and commander in chief would be Indians
o Muslims and Hindus to be given equal representation
o All parties to submit their nominees for executive council to Viceroy
Why it broke down?
o Muslim League wanted all Muslim to be ONLY nominated by the League
o Congress insisted on the right to nominate members of all communities
Note – Its aim was to delay the partition, not to avoid it
Cabinet Mission 1946
Discussion on how to form an interim government and the principles for framing a new Constitution giving freedom to India
Main Points:
o Rejection to the demand of an Independent Pakistan as it would include a large non-Muslim population too
o Grouping of existing provinces into 3 groups:
o A = Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa
o B = Punjab, NWFP, and Sindh
o C = Bengal and Assam
Constituent Assembly to be elected by provincial assemblies by proportional representation (389 member from PA , 92 from princely states)
Page 42
A common centre to control defense, communication and external affairs.
A province was free to come out of the groups after 1 year and from the Union after 10 years.
Accepted by Congress on June 24th 1946
Interim Government
Both parties came on board
But ML played obstructionist politics – only interest in the government to fight for Pakistan
Atlee Statement- 1947
Deadline of 30th June 1948 to transfer power
British would give power to either a central government or provincial governments if Constituent Assembly wasn’t fully represented
Hints at partition and Balkanization of India
Mountbatten Plan – 1947 (4rd June)
Jinnah wanted nothing less than Pakistan now.
Partition of Punjab and Bengal to be decided by simple majority
Indian Independence Act 1947
Declared India as an independent and sovereign state from August 15 1947
Provided for partition of India and creation of Pakistan
Abolished the office of Viceroy and provided each dominion a governor general to appointed by the British Crown
Empowered the Constituent Assemblies of India and Pakistan to frame and adopt Constitutions for their respective nations
Empowered the Constituent Assemblies to legislate till the new Constitutions were enforced
Granted freedom the princely states to join either India or Pakistan or remain independent
Page 43
POST WAR NATIONAL UPSURGE
1945 INA Trials – Significance
Unprecedented intensity of campaign for the release of INA prisoners – daily editorials, pamphlets, participation of diverse social groups all over India + Indians living abroad
In varying degrees, even Muslim League, Communist Party, RSS and Hindu Mahasabha supported the INA release campaign
The loyalists too urged the British to abandon the trials for good India-Britain relations in the future
Page 44
1946 RIN Mutiny – Significance
RIN Mutiny
Background – 1100 Naval Ratings of HIS Talwar went on a strike to protest against racial discrimination, subordination, demand equal pay and show support to the INA Trial Movement
Revolt within the armed forced had a liberating effect on Indian people
Hoisting of Indian Flag on HMIS Talwar was seen as an event marking the end of British Rule
Government announced that only those INA members accused of murder would face trial
Overall, the event signified the losing grip and inability of the British to rule over India any further
Page 45
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS
Indian National Army - Origin
Idea first conceived by Mohan Singh – an Indian officer of British Indian Army in Malaya
He went to Japan for help to form an Army
POW were handed over by Japan to Mohan Singh – 45,000
Charge of INA later took over by SC Bose
He formed Provisional Government of Free India in Singapore in 1943 and declared war on Britain and US
Why British finally quit?
“ British Rulers had won the war against Hitler but lost the one in India “
Change in global power regime. US, USSR displaced the UK.
Men in Armed Forces (INA trials , RIN mutiny), Bureaucracy openly attended meetings, contributed money and voted for the Congress quite explicitly
The social base of the colonial regime was among the Zamindars and upper caste, the “loyalists” who received the main share of British favors and offices. This was eroded in the last few years of the rule
Paucity of European recruits to the ICS combined with a policy of Indianization. By 1939 British and Indian members had achieved parity
The British Policy of Conciliation and Repression couldn’t work anymore as there wasn’t anything to offer after the Cripps Mission except granting full freedom
Brutal repression of 1942 movement offended the sensibilities of both liberals and loyalists.
Conclusion – Once it was recognized that British rule could not survive like old for long, a graceful withdrawal from India was eminent
Strategy of National Movement
The basic strategy of the National Movement was to wage a continuous struggle to grow the nationalist influence among the people through different channels and through different phases of the National Movement
A major objective of the movements of the Gandhian era was to bring the masses into active politics and political action
Second objective was to erode the ideological influence of the British and have more and more people adopt nationalist ideology
[important] It also meant undermining the twin notion of benevolence and invincibility of British Rule. The process of undermining the first, i.e. the notion of
Page 46
benevolence and creating an intellectual framework was initiated and performed brilliantly by Dadabhai Noaroji, Justice Ranade, RC Dutt and other Moderates. This framework was carried to middle class by Extremists and to the masses during Gandhian era. The independent newspapers of late 19th century, the work in the legislative councils by leaders like Pherozeshah Mehta and G.K Gokhale, the bold propaganda of Lokmanya Tilak, Aurobindo Ghose and other Extremists and the death-defying deeds of the Revolutionary Terrorists frontally challenged the notion of invincibility of the colonial state. But it was the law breaking mass movement of the post 1918 period which basically performed the task among the mass of the Indian people
Third objective was to undermine the hold of the colonial state on the members of its own state apparatuses – members of civil services, the police and armed forces
Importance of Constructive Work
To promote Khadi, village industries, national education and Hindu Muslim unity
Struggle against untouchability and social upliftment of Harijans and boycott of foreign liquor and cloth
It played an imp role during the passive phase of the National movement by providing a sense of activism in the non-mass movement phases of the struggle
It involved millions whereas parliamentary work could only involve a few
No comments:
Post a Comment