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PERIODISATION OF INDIAN HISTORY (TIMELINE)
Stone Ages - 5 lakh - 1000 BC
Indus Valley Civilization - 2500 - 1750 BC
Vedic culture: 1500 - 600 BC
Jainism and Buddhism: 6th – 5th C BC
Mahajanapadas before Mauryas: 6th – 4th BC
Mauryan: 4th – 2nd C BC
Post Mauryan History: 2nd – 3rd C AD
Gupta Period: 4th – 6th AD
Harshvardhan: 7th C AD
Sangam Literature
Modern Histography:
Histography is the writing of History or the study of the written Histories.
In the late 18th century, especially after 1773, when East India Company officially got the governing powers, British began the discovery of the Ancient Indian history to better understand the local people and their culture. Several type of interpretations of the History were written:
Official History: It portrayed ancient Indian history in bad light. The main reason was to create a mental impression that British culture and civilization is much superior and it has the natural right to rule India. According to them, Indian history was dark history, backward, superstitious, idol worshippers, snake charmers, uncivilized, Indians didn’t know how to rule themselves, were always ruled by the outsiders, women was always suppressed etc.
Independent European Writers: They wrote Indian history with curiosity and appreciated the rich and colourful culture.
Indian Scholars: They started writing in the latter half of the 19th century. Secular Nationalists glorified the ancient History and praised the Indian culture. They wanted Indians to be proud of their cultural richness and not to feel inferior. Communal Natioanlists over glorified the history, hiding even the shortcomings.
Marxist Historians: They wrote history as class struggles in different phases-
Ancient period – Masters Vs Slaves
Medieval period – feudal lords Vs peasants
Modern period – capitalists Vs workers
Subaltern Writers: They did not write history focusing on kings and kingdoms, but their focus was peasants, workers, artisans, regional kingdoms and smaller areas.
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Sources to Study Ancient Indian History:
Archaeological Sources
Literary Sources
Archaeological Sources
Ruins of the buildings and cities: It is studied through excavations.
Excavations can be horizontal and vertical.
Horizontal excavation: It shows the proper areal extent of a civilization in a particular time.
Vertical Excavation: It is helpful in showing different timelines.
Note: Vertical excavation is more prevalent in India because it is less costly. Also since most of the land is in private hands people don’t allow the digging.
Potteries: They tell about the local culture and technique.
Graveyard/ Burial Grounds: It tells about the faith of contemporary civilization.
Coins/Seals: Extent of empire, trade pattern and trade relations, symbols and language, prosperity and economy.
Buildings: It tells about the living standard and culture. It also tells about science and tech and archaeological expertise of people.
Tools and weapons: these again tell about the economy and wars. Also the extent of those wars.
Fossils
Literary Sources
Based on Literary sources, history is divided into three phases:
Pre-history – a period for which no written records are available. Eg. Stone age.
Proto-history – a period for which written records are available but they have not yet deciphered. Eg. Indus valley Civilization.
History – a period for which not only written records are available but such texts have been deciphered as well. This age starts from 6th C BC onwards.
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PART – I : PRE - HISTORY
STONE AGE
In the context of Indian sub-continent, Stone Age is divided into following ages:
Paleolithic Age: 5lakh – 10,000 BC
Mesolithic Age: 10000 BC – 4000 BC
Neolithic Age: 7000 – 1000 BC
Chalcolithic Age (Copper age): 2500 – 750 BC
(NOTE: the time line of these ages is overlapping because the ages started at different places at different times.)
Paleolithic Age:
Sites:
Sohan Valley/ Soan Valley – Punjab (Pakistan)
Narmada Valley
Krishna Valley
Chotanagpur plateau
Bori Valley in Maharashtra has the earliest evidence of human existence in Indian Sub-continent.
Tools:
Hand Axes
Borers
Chops
Pebbles
Flakes
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Tools were made of stones. A cutting edge was created by chipping and flaking the stone.
Life Style:
Food Habits: People were hunters and gatherers. They were omnivorous i.e. both vegetarian and non-vegetarian.
Clothing: Used to wear leaves and hides of animals.
Housing: Caves – hence preferred hilly areas as they provided security and natural caves; thatched huts (The information is gained by Bimbetka cave paintings.)
Mesolithic Age: (10,000 – 4000 BC)
Sites:
Adamgarh – Madhya Pradesh
Bagore – Rajasthan
Bhimbetka – Madhya Pradesh
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Pic courtesy: entrancegeek.
Tools:
Blades which were sharp on both edges
Crescent
Arrow
(Note: the size of the tools became smaller. They required more skill and precision to make.)
Life Style:
Life style was similar to Paleolithic man except one major change – domestication of animals started.
Neolithic Age: (7000 – 1000 BC)
Sites:
Chirand – Bihar (Only bone tools were found)
Burzahom and Guftral – Kashmir
Bhimbetka – M.P.
Belan Valley – UP
Mehrgarh – Balochistan (First agricultural evidence is found)
Maski and Brahmagiri – Karnataka (Both Neolithic and chalcolithic tools are found)
Tools:
Antelope horns – Kashmir
Oval shaped – Southern India
Polished Stone – Bihar
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You can observe the sharpness and the fineness of the tools have changed.
Life Style:
Man became a food producer. First evidence of agriculture is found at Mehrgarh (Wheat and Barley; 7000 – 6000 BC), Belan Valley (Rice; 6000 BC)
Clothing: Animal skin, leaves, bark.
Housing: Thatched houses made of mud were made.
People started living in bigger groups because of agriculture. Pottery making started with the help of a wheel.
Chalcolithic Age (2500 – 700 BC)
Sites:
Ahar Culture ( Ahar, Gilund in Rajasthan)
Jorwe Culture ( Inamgaon, Daimabad in Maharashtra)
Malwa Culture ( Navdatoli, Eran, Kayatha in Madhya Pradesh)
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Tools:
Largely made of stone and copper
Hand Axes, sickles , borers made of copper
Life Style:
A developed village life started.
Food: A variety of crops were grown – wheat, barley, rice, pulses, oil seeds, dates, pea and water melon.
Domestication of Animals: Cattle and pigs were domesticated.
Clothing: Cotton was used in later period.
Pottery: Ochre Coloured Pottery and Black and Red Pottery was used. (OCP And BRP)
Burials: they buried the dead bodies with the personal belongings of the person. This shows that they must have believed in life after death. In western India, bodies were buried in North – South Direction and in Southern India, they were buried in East – West Direction.
Housing: Mud and Mud brick houses were found.
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THE HARAPPAN CULTURE : BRONZE AGE CIVILIZATION
Discovery:
Till 19th century, the Indus Valley Civilization was unknown and it was believed that Vedic people were the oldest inhabitants of India.
In 1850, during the construction work of railways, some artifacts were found which were very old. It was an exciting discovery and an excavation was planned. But later, due to WW-I the excavation as planned had to be postponed.
In 1921, Harappa was excavated under the leadership of Sir John Marshal and D. R. Sahni. Harappa is situated on the bank of River Ravi in Punjab (Pakistan).
In 1922, Mohenjodaro was excavated in Larkana district of Sindh (Pakistan) under the supervision of R. D. Bannerjee.
Since similar town planning and artifacts were found, it was concluded that they belonged to the same civilization despite being 480 miles apart.
Since Harappa was excavated first, the civilization was named after it due to historical precedence.
https://www..com/watch?v=juc3msgLMoc
The above link will provide a visual understanding of IVC.
Mohenjodaro
Largest site to be excavated/ on river Indus
Let’s do some advertising too.. :P :P
Since BABA was always there, and BABA will always be.. We predict that the savior of Mohenjo will be born again as ‘Akbar’ in another Value Add :P
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Important findings:
Great Bath: A great Bath i.e. a large bath tub was found in the city. Its dimensions are 11.88*7.01*2.43 m. it is completely made up of burnt bricks of standard size. It is believed that it might have been used for some ritual or holy bath.
Great Granary: A large granary is found, showing surplus food production. It also shows that there was a proper civic administration, storage facilities, and trade and commerce.
Dancing Girl: A bronze statue of Dancing girl was found. Apart from wearing necklace and bangles, it is naked. It shows that dance was practiced. It also shows the artistic and metallurgical capability of the civilization.
Yes Mr Gowarikar.. Absolutely Identical !! :D
To cast that bronze image, lost wax technique was used. It is given in detail in the NCERT.
Largest Number of Seals:
Seals were made of steatite (hard clay) and were probably used as currency (although barter system prevailed) or as mark of authority for trade.
Round, Square or Cylindrical shape
The Harappan script, gods and animals are also depicted on seals giving detailed information about their practices, beliefs and life in general.
Script: It is a pictographic script. It was written from right to left in one line and then left to right in other and so on. This type of script is called ‘Boustrophedon’. It has not been deciphered so far but around 400 unique symbols have been identified.
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Assembly Hall: A large assembly hall was found at the citadel.
Pashupati Seal: A seal depicting a human image, or Proto Shiva (Pashupati) was found. The image is surrounded by tiger, elephant, Rhino and a buffalo. It has two deer at his feet.
Cotton: Evidence of Cotton fabric was found in fossilized form.
Large Building: A large building (probably a palace or the Governor’s house) has been excavated at the citadel. However, it is not clear whether the Harappan people were governed by a king or a committee of citizens.
Harappa: (River Ravi)
Important Findings:
12 granaries, kept in two rows. (6 in each row)
To the South of the Granaries lay working floors consisting of rows of circular brick platforms. These were meant for Thrashing grains as wheat and Barley was found in the crevices of the floor. Two roomed barraks were also found which probably accommodated the labourers.
Different types of Burial Practices were performed:
Direct Burial i.e. body was directly buried in the ground
Urn Burial i.e. Body was first cremated and then the ashes were buried in the urn
Coffin Burial
Second largest numbers of seals were found from Harappa after Mohenjodaro.
Kalibangan : River Ghaggar (Rajasthan)
Important Findings:
Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture
Evidence of ploughed land is found. Wooden ploughs were used, hence the ploughs have not survived.
Evidence of Fire Altars
Citadel is made of mud bricks. In all other sides, the citadel has been made of Burnt bricks.
Lothal: River Bhogwa
Important Findings:
Dockyard (made of burnt bricks) was used for shipping.
Persian seals have been found showing the evidence of Trade.
Evidence of Rice Husk (This is the only place in IVC where evidence of rice is found.)
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Evidence of double burial i.e. in one grave- MF (most common), MM, and FF. The reason why this was done is unknown.
Evidence of fire Altars
Chanhu Daro: River Indus (Sindh)
It is believed that it was the industrial town of the IVC.
Factories of bangles and beads have been found.
Dholavira:
The citadel of Dholavira is built of stone and is a monumental work and most impressive among the Harappan citadels discovered so far.
It has a similar bath like Mohenjodaro, but smaller in size.
Other important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation are:
Ropar, Kot diji, Alamgir pur, Sokhtagindor etc.
The following map will show the important sites area of Indus valley civilization:
Geographical extent
The Harappan culture is older than chalcolithic culture i.e. Harappan culture time period is 2800 B.C. – 1300 B.C. while chalcolithic age’s time period is 2200 B.C. to 700 B.C.
It arose in north western part of Indian subcontinent.
It was first discovered in 1921.
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It is called as harappan civilization because in archaeology there is a convention that when an ancient culture is described, it is named after the modern name of first site which revealed its existence. In this case Harappa (situated in province of west Punjab in Pakistan) was the first site and so named Harappan civilization.
The Harappan culture emerged in Sindh and Punjab. This was Pre Harappan culture and Central zone of civilization which later developed into mature Urban civilization. It spread into southward and eastward.
In other words, Harappan civilization covered – Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujrat and fringes of western Uttar Pradesh.
Extension of civilization
North – Jammu, South – Narmada estuary, North-east – Meerut, West - Makrana coast of Baluchistan. (see the above image)
Area – 12,99,600 kms.
The Harappa civilization was 20 times greater than Egypt and 12 times larger than combining area of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Sites
About 1500 Harappan sites were discovered out of which around 925 are in India.
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These sites belong to early, mature and late phases of Harappan culture but most of them are late Harappa, post-urban sites. These lie on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra channel.
Very few sites can be regarded as cities.
o Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were two most important cities of Harappan civilization. Mohenjo-Daro means mound of the dead. Both cities were linked by Indus river.
o 3rd city – Chanhudaro in Sindh.
o 4th – Lothal in Gujrat at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.
o 5th – Kalibangan which means black bangles, in northern Rajasthan.
o 6th – Banawali (Hissar, Haryana)
o The last two cities have seen Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture.
The Harappan culture in –
o Mature phase is found in coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada
o Later phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in Kathiwar peninsula in Gujrat.
Dholvira in Gujrat shows Harappa fortification + all 3 phases of Harappan culture.
Rakhigarhi in Haryana also shows all the 3 phases. But Rakhigarhi is bigger than Dholavira.
Town planning and structures
Town planning was unique features of this civilization.
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro has citadel (a strong castle in or near a city, where people can shelter from danger, especially during a war). There is a possibility that it can be occupied by ruling class.
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Below the city there is a lower town consisting of bricks. These may be inhabited by common people.
The pattern in which houses were laid was grid or chessboard pattern. In this system the road or streets cut each other at right angles i.e. 90°. The city was divided into many blocks. Almost all the Indus settlements has this pattern.
Mohenjo-Daro has more building structures compared to the Harappa.
Mohenjo-Daro was able to mobilize labor and collect taxes.
2 room barracks found at Harappa were possibly for labourers inhabitation.
Great bath
Most important place of Mohenjo-Daro.
It was a tank situated at citadel.
Example of beautiful brickwork.
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On both the sides of the great bath there were flight of steps to lead to the surface.
There are side rooms to change cloths.
Burnt bricks were used to made floor of the great bath.
To fill bath with water, a nearby well was used.
There was an outlet in the corner of the bath so that water can be drained when not needed.
It is believed that this bath was mainly for ritual bathing.
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Granaries
Mohenjo-Daro granaries
These were the largest buildings in Mohenjo-Daro.
Harappa Granaries
Harappa was having 6 granaries.
The granaries at Harappa had same area as Great granary at Mohenjo-Daro.
To the south of the Granaries, working floors were there which were used to thrash the grains.
How do we know this? – remains of wheat and barley had been found in cervices of these floors.
Kalibangan granaries
In southern part of the city we found some brick platforms which could have been used for storing grains indicating that granaries were an important part of Harappan cities.
Probably, peasants paid their taxes in form of cereals which was stored in granaries for payment of wages and emergency purposes. (In Mesopotamia barley was used for wage payments)
Burnt bricks usage
Burnt bricks were used remarkably in construction of buildings in Harappa. While Egypt used dried bricks for same purpose.
Burnt bricks were also used by Mesopotamia but Harappan cities used them largely.
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Drainage system
Drainage system was impressive as almost all cities and towns were having drainage system.
In every city each small or big house had its own courtyard and bathroom with remarkable quality.
Kalibangan – many houses had their own wells.
Water from houses flowed to the streets which had drains.
These drains were covered with stones slabs or bricks. (you can see in above image)
These street drains were also having manholes used for cleaning purposes.
Remains of street and drains had also been found at Banawali.
The drainage system of Harappa is very unique.
Harappan’s attention to health and clean probably had no match by other Bronze Age civilization.
Agriculture
It seems that in ancient times Indus region was very fertile.
Evidences of it are prosperity of the villages and towns and information by Alexander’s historian’s about prosperity if Sindh.
Present day Indus region has hardly 15 centimeters rainfall. While in ancient times abundant vegetation attracted more rainfall but clearing of forests for agriculture, fuel, timber, grazing had largely affected rainfall.
The secret of fertility of Indus region was annual inundation by Indus River. Walls rose for protection shows that flood takes place annually.
The Indus carried more alluvial soil than Nile River.
Nile River in Egypt supported its people. Similarly, Indus helped and fed Sindh people.
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After receding of flood water in month of November the Indus people sowed the seeds and in month of April i.e. before coming of next flood they harvested wheat and Barley.
Agriculture tools
We didn’t found any hoe or ploughshare but ploughed field found in Kalibangan shows that fields were ploughed.
Figure 1 Kalibangan : An agricultural field, showing crisscross pattern of furrows
Probably they would have wooden ploughshare which degraded with time.
How these ploughshares were drawn i.e. by men or oxen is unknown.
Maybe they have used stone sickles to harvest the crops.
Irrigation
Nalas or Gabarbands enclosed by dams were used to store water in Baluchistan and Afghanistan.
Channel or canal irrigation – absent or not known to them.
Food Grain production
Harappan villages situated near flood plains produced sufficient food grains for themselves as well as for other communities like artisans, merchants and others who lived in the city and don’t produce their foods. (just like our today’s farmers).
In other words, there was surplus of food grains.
They produced wheat and barley (2 types), rai, peas, sesamum and mustard.
In Lothal – rice was produced in 1800 B.C.
Food grains were stored in granaries. (Granaries covered here)
Cotton’s earliest producers were Harappans. Greeks called it as Sindon (derived from Sindh) because cotton was first produced by it.
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Domestication of animals
Though the Harappans practiced agriculture, they also domesticate animals.
Animals which were domesticated - Oxen, buffaloes, goats, ships and pigs.
Animal favored by Harappans – Humped Bull.
Pets – Dogs. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both are found.
Animals for beasts of burden – Camel and ass.
Horse evidences – Mohenjo-Daro (superficially), Lothal (terracotta figurine), Surkotada (Horse remains in 2000 B.C.)
But Harappan culture was not horse-centered and there were no bones of horses in early and mature phases of Harappan culture.
Harappans know Elephant and Rhinoceros.
Similarity of Harappans with Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia – same food grains production and same animals’ domestication.
Difference – Harappans in Gujrat produce rice and domesticate elephant which wasn’t in Mesopotamian cities.
Technology
Harappan culture belongs to Bronze age.
They used the tools made of stone but they were also aware of manufacturing of Bronze and use of bronze.
Bronze is made by mixing tin and copper. But both were not available locally and so the no. of bronze tools is not so large.
Copper - was obtained from Khetri mines in Rajasthan’s Juhnjhunu district. It could have also brought from Balochistan as well.
Tin – it was brought from Afghanistan or Hazaribagh and Bastar.
The bronze tools discovered from Harappan sites were having less percentage of tin.
Bronze smiths – they were an important artisan group in Harappan society. They produced images, utensils, axes, saws, knives and spears.
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Crafts
Textile
We have read above that Harappans were earliest to produce cotton.
A piece of woven cotton has been found from Mohenjo-Daro.
Spindle whorls – it was used for spinning.
Weavers – they weave cloths from wool and cotton.
Other Crafts
Brick laying, masons, boat-making, seal making and terracotta manufacturers were important crafts.
Goldsmiths – they made jewelry from gold, Silver and precious stones. Gold and silver was obtained from Afghanistan while precious stones were brought from South India.
Bead making – Harappans were exporters in bead making.
Pottery making – for pottery making potter’s wheel was used. Pottery was having its own characteristic with glossy and shining.
Trade
Granaries at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal, numerous seals, uniform scripts, regulated weights and measures suggest importance of trade in Harappan civilization.
Inland trade - They traded in stone, metal, shell etc.
They didn’t possess raw material for the production of commodities.
Money system – Today we have notes and coins but Harappans were not having any metal money. Most probably they were having barter system, in which they procure metals in exchange of food grains.
Navigation – They practice navigation on coast of Arabian sea.
Wheel – They knew about wheel and it was used in carts.
They used kind of modern ekka but not spoked wheel.
Trade with Afghanistan, Iran and Mesopotamia
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Commercial links with one area of Rajasthan, and also with Afghanistan and Iran.
Trading colony – Harappans had setup a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which facilitated trade with central Asia.
Trade with Mesopotamia – how do we know that we have traded with Mesopotamia – because Harappan seals have been found in Mesopotamia. The trade between two is in mostly in lapis lazuli in 2300 B.C. Mesopotamian texts speak of trading relations with Meluha which was ancient name of Indus region. They also told us about 2 intermediate stations – Dilmun and Makan – between the Meluha and Mesopotamia. Dilmun can probably be present Bahrain in Persian Gulf while Makan is present Makran coast of Iran and Pakistan.
Political organization
We have very little about cultural organization of Harappans.
But it is believed that the cultural homogeneity in Harappa could only be because of central anteriority.
Indus region was not a large political unit like Maryann empire but the stability was remarkable as it had continued for 600 years
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Temples
While Egypt and Mesopotamia was having temples there is no evidence of temples in Harappa's culture.
Though there in great bath but it could have been used for the ablutions so we can say that Harappa was not ruled by priests. (Lower Mesopotamia was ruled by priests)
In lothal there are evidences of practicing of fire cult but evidences of temples are missing.
Figure fire altars are from Kalibangan and Lotha
Probably Harappa was ruled by class of merchants, who are more concerned with commerce than conquests. It must be noted that the Harappa's lack in weapons.
Religious practices
Numerous terracotta figurines of women have been found from Harappa.
In one of the figurine a plant is growing out of the embryo of women representing earth goddess. This goddess was connected with the origin and growth of plants
The Harappans worshipped earth goddess as fertility goddess and in similar manner as Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
But we are not sure that Harappa's like Egyptians were matriarchal or not.
In Egypt daughter inherits the throne or property, but in Harappa who inherits this, we have no knowledge about this.
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In Vedic times earth goddess had not been given any importance but still she was given respect and admiration in Vedic texts.
It is only in 6th century AD onwards that various mother goddesses such as Durga, Kali, Chandi, Amba etc. came to be regarded as goddess in Puranas and Tantric literatures. With the passing of time every village had its own separate goddess.
The male Deity in the Indus valley
In Harappan civilization the male deity was represented on seal
The male deity was having 3 horns head. he sits like a yogi on a stool in cross-legged position.
Animals like Elephant, tiger, Rhinoceros and Buffalo surrounded him while 2 deer are under his stool.
Code to remember the animals in seal - DBT scheme in Russia and England
The male deity in seal is identified as Pashupati Mahadev which is doubtful. Horned gods appear in other ancient civilization also.
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Phallus worship
Phallus worship existed in Harappan times which later connected with Shiva.
Evidences of phallus worship - numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone.
according to Rigveda Non-Aryan people were also worshippers of phallus.
Phallus worship had been started. by Harappans which later become respectable form of worship in Hindu society.
Tree Worship
Figure Pipal tree in seal
Other than worshipping phallus, male deity and mother goddess, Harappans also worshipped trees and animals.
Pipal - most important tree which was worshipped and even worshipped today.
Evidences - Deity represented on a seal in the midst of the branches of pipal.
Animal worship
Like other worship evidences animal worship can also be seen in seals.
One horned unicorn - Most important animal to be worshipped. Identified with Rhinoceros.
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Humped bull - Next important animal which was worshipped. Even today you have seen that we give chapattis or something to eat for bull if it passes nearby our home, street.
Animals in Pashupati seal indicates that they were also worshipped.
These gods in form of trees, animals, were not placed in temples. while in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was common
scholars had not said anything about religious beliefs of Harappan as their script is not deciphered.
Amulets – these were found in large numbers, probably believed in ghosts and evil forces which can harm them and so they use amulets which protect them from evil spirits
Atharvaveda consists of many charms and spells and recommends amulets for warning of diseases and evils forces.
The Harappan script
Harappan like ancient Mesopotamians invented art of writing.
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The Harappan script is a mystery because it is still not deciphered.
Many have linked it with other languages like Dravidian or Proto Dravidian or Sanskrit or Sumerian but it’s an indigenous product and has nothing to do with other languages.
Because of non-decipherment of script, we can’t conclude anything about its religion, ideas and beliefs.
Most of the script is found on seals, using very few words. Seals were used for authentication purposes. (for example if a packet is sealed that means the packet is not opened and its contents are safe)
Only one thing which we know about script is – it is pictographic and not alphabetic.
o There were 250 to 400 pictographs
o Each picture represents an idea or object.
Weights and measures
We know that Harappans have some script and they also trade. The script must have helped them to record the transactions, day to day activities, property details etc.
There are no. of articles found which were used for weights and measures
o 16 or its multiples – in weighing mostly 16 or its multiples were used. Example – 16, 64, 460, 320 and 640
o This tradition of 16 is still continued and 46 annas made one rupee.
Measurement
They also knew about measurement.
Evidences – sticks inscribed with measure marks. One of the stick was made of bronze.
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Harappan Pottery
Used potter’s wheel to made pots
Numerous pots painted in various designs.
Designs – trees and circles and also geometry
Seals
>2000 seals found
Majority carried short inscription with pictures of one horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat and elephant
Square or quadrilateral.
Images
Made beautiful metal images
Dancing girl made of bronze is master piece of Harappa.
o She is naked
o Right arm on hip
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o Left arm hanging down
o Wearing large no, of bangles
o Hair is plaited
o Masterpiece of Harappan art
o Drooping eyes
Bearded priest
o Figure of the bearded man was interpreted as a priest
o He is draped in a shawl which is coming under right arm and covers the keft shoulder.
o Shawl decorated with trefoil pattern
o Eyes – little elongated and half closed like in mediation
o Nose – well-formed and medium size
o Mouth – average size, close cut moustache, short beard and whiskers
o Hair – parted in middle
Plain woven fillet passed round head.
o Head – armlet in right hand
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Terracotta figurines
Terracotta figurines
Large no. From Harappan settlements
Terracotta figurines of animals – birds, monkeys, sheep, dogs and cattles, humped and humpless bulls
Male and female figurines
Terracotta bullock carts (today ‘s bullock cart’s ancestors)
Quality- less than Mesopotamia
Beads
Made of – agate, turquoise, carnelian and steatite
Workshop- chanhudaro
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How they are made?
Stone is first sawn into oblong bar
Flaked into Cylindrical shape and polished.
Bored with chert drills or bronze tubular drills
Gold and silver beads also found
Common material – steatite
Origin of civilization
Mature Harappan civilization time period – 2550 BC – 1990 BC
During mature Harappan phase from tools, seals, terracotta to town planning everything was uniform. In other words, there wasn’t change.
Though there were changes in the Mohenjo-Daro pottery.
By 19th century – Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro – only 2 big cities disappeared
Though Harappan culture also faded away but the process was gradual and continued in parts of Gujrat, Rajasthan, Haryana and western UP
Mature Harappan settlement were continuation of pre Harappan settlements.
o Pre – Harappan settlements found – lower Sindh, Baluchistan and Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
Outside influence in the origin.
o We don’t have enough proof or evidences to support it.
Mesopotamian trade contacts helped in origin?
They may have stimulated for the development of H culture but there is no doubt in the Indianness of its own.
Reasons of decline
Amount of rainfall
o 3000 BC – amount of rainfall in Indus region increased and then decreased affecting the agriculture and stockbreeding
Decreasing fertility
o Expansion of desert increased salinity which further decreased the fertility again affecting the agriculture.
Sudden subsidence or uplift of the land which caused floods
Earthquake
o Earthquake caused changes in the course of Indus causing inundation of Mohenjo-Daro hinterland.
Decline due to foreign Invasion.
o According to this view Vedic Aryans who destroyed the Harappan culture.
o But it is lacked in evidences.
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Reality of decline of Harappan Civilization
There were lot of factors who contributed in decline of Harappan civilization
One of the important factor is – ecological imbalance
Failure in the evolvement i.e. Harappan were conservative. No new technologies.
Post urban phase of Harappan culture (1900-1200 BC)
Time period- 1900-1200 BC
Also known as – sub Indus culture
Earlier considered post Harappan but now more popularly called as late Harappan culture.
Traits of post urban Harappan culture were found in Pakistan and central and western India
o Manda, Jammu
o Sanghol in Punjab
o Daulatpur and mitthal, Haryana
o Almgirpur and Hulas in Saharanpur, UP
It was primarily chalcolithic in which tools of stone and copper are used
Tools – Axes, chisels, knives, bangles, curved razors, fish-holks and spear-heads
Economic subsidence – agriculture, stock raising, hunting and fishing
Gradual disappearance of measuring objects, human figurines, faience etc.
o Objects to measure length were not found. For e.g. in later period – cubical stone weights and terracotta cakes were absent in Gujrat.
o All Harappan sites lack human figurines
o Faience – it went out of fashion
End of Indus trade with west Asian centres
o Scarcity or absence of Lapis lazuli, chert, carnelian beads and copper and bronze vessels
Pottery
o New kinds of pottery occur in last levels of post urban phase
o In haryana and Punjab – grey ware and painted grey ware found- these were associated with Vedic people
It is said that barbarian horse riding people came from Iran and overran Harappan cities. But careful examination of evidences revealed that this wasn’t true.
o Successive groups of people may have encountered the people belonging to the late Harappan phase between 1500 BC and 1200 BC.
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Vedic Civilization
Vedic period is broadly divided into
Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC)
Later Vedic (1000 – 600 BC)
Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC)
Rig Veda is the most important source to know about the early Vedic Period and early Aryans. It is considered the purest form of Hindu Literature.
Manuscript of Rig Veda written on bark of a tree.
Rig Veda: The term ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘Vid’ which means ‘to know’.
Oldest book of any kind in India.
It was composed during 1500 – 1000 BC in the Punjab region. As a book it was compiled much later.
Since Aryans didn’t know how to write, it was preserved for centuries using an oral tradition.
In Rig Veda, there are 10 Mandals (chapters), 1028 Suktas (Hymns) and 10465 Shlokas (verses)
The Mandals from 2nd to 8th are older. While 1st and 10th mandals are the latest. The term ‘Shudra’, is mentioned for the first time in the 10th mandal.
The book is written in Vedic Sanskrit. It is the earliest form of Sanskrit, perhaps without Grammar.
Gods and Goddesses are praised in the book. Modern Hindus believe that it is a revealed book.
Aryans: the word ‘Aryan’ literally means pure or noble. The name was given to the linguistic group and not a race. It is believed that they originally came from Eurasia (Central Asia) and settled in Punjab region. Hence rives Indus has been mentioned several times in Rig veda.
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Indus was the most important river for them. Also, river Saraswati has been praised the most. It is referred as Naditama (mother river). OLD NAMES NEW NAMES Sindhu Indus
Vitasta
Jhelum Askini Chenab
Paurusni
Ravi Bipasa Shatudri Beas Satluj
Saraswati
Ghaggar Kubha Kabul
They were aware of Himalayas but not of Deserts and Seas. In Rig Veda, the word ‘Samudra’ meant a collection of water.
In Since early Aryans did not come far East or South, They were not aware of Narmada. Ganga is mentioned only once, since it was not socially important, it was not a holy river then. Yamuna, since it was close to Punjab has been mentioned thrice.
Occupation of Rig Vedic Society:
Early Aryans were pastoral nomads. Domestication of Animals was the most important activity.
They knew farming, but it was not very developed. Only one crop is mentioned in Rig Veda, Yava i.e. Barley.
Gau (Cow) is mentioned several times showing the importance of Cow and cattle. Cow was the most important property. The wars were not fought for land but for cattle.
Some important terms mentioned in Rig Veda related to cow:
Gavisti: Search/conflict for the cow.
Godhuli: Evening time when cows used to return to their shed – measurement of time.
Dudhitra: Milker of the cow.
Gavyanti: Distance travelled by cow in a day – measurement of distance.
Aghanya: Not to be killed. ( Many historians have written that ‘Godhna’ is the term referring to beef that was fed to guests but in later chapters of Rig Veda, it was mentioned that cow is not to be killed.)
Rig Veda mentions certain occupations like – carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, Potters and weavers. There is no clear evidence of trade like it is found during IVC.
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Aryans introduced a new mode of Transport, The chariots run by horses. Because of this they could best the indigenous people with much ease. And that made them a dominating force.
Political Organisation:
Early Aryans were grouped into tribes based on the cattle. Collectively the tribe was called Jana. And the leader of it was called a ‘Rajana’. Territory Jana Leader Rajana Vis Vispati
Gram (War between grams was called Sangram)
Gramni Kul Kulpati
The post of the Rajana was not hereditary and Gramanis played a major role in making him a Rajan.
The Rajana was assisted by ‘Senapati’ ( the head of the army) and ‘Purohit’ (The chief advisor of the king).
The Rajana was also assisted by some Tribal Assemblies –
a) Vidhati – Oldest assembly, Both men and women were a part of it.
b) Sabha – An assembly of Brahmans, both men and women
c) Samiti – Assembly of Villagers, Only men.
The rajan collected ‘gifts’ known as ‘Bali’ from his people. These were voluntary and were a precursor of the taxes. There was no separate office for tax collection or administration of justice.
Religion and Faith:
They believed in One God as evident from Rig Veda – Eva Eka Dvitya ( He is one and not two)
Also they believed in a formless God – Na Pratima Asti ( He has no image).
Overall 33 other Gods and Godesses are mentioned in Rig Veda. Name Power Indra Rain + Destroyer of Forts. Weapon – Thunder bolt.
Agni
God of fire. An intermediary between man and supreme one God. Varuna God of water/Cosmos and God of Rita
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(moral Order)
Soma
God of Plants – An intoxicating drink named after him. Prithvi Goddess of Earth
Usha
Godess of morning/Dawn Aditi Mother Goddess
Vishnu
Sun God
None of these Gods have been mentioned as supreme to each other. However, Indira has been mentioned most number of times in Rig Veda followed by Agni and Varuna.
There is no sign of a temple like structure but a ritual called ‘Yajna’ is mentioned where sacrifices were made near the fire altars.
Some important Yajnas are:
Raj Suya Yajna: It was held during coronation of a king and to commemorate the coronation every year.
Ashwamedha Yajna: It was done to show the strength of the king. A horse was taken to mark the king’s territory. Any other king either surrendered and let the horse go or blocked the way of the horse and fought with the king doing Ashwamedha Yajna.
Once the horse completes its successful journey, the Chief queen had to lie with the horse for one day and then the horse was sacrificed.
Vajpayee Yajna: It was done to gain Strength (Divine Power) for the king. A chariot race used to take place where the royal chariot was made to win against his kinsmen.
In Each yajna, hundreds of cattle were sacrificed.
Sixteen priestly classes are mentioned in Rig Veda. Brahmans, Hotras, Udgatras etc. In later Vedic period, as the number of Yajnas and sacrifices increased, the other 15 classes were sidelined and Brahmans dominated as only a Brahman could supervise a Yajna.
Niyoga – In the absence of a child, a widow was allowed to live with her brother in law.
Polygamy was practiced. There is evidence of both polygyny ( A man having multiple wives ) and polyandry ( A women having multiple husbands)
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Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC)
Source to understand Later Vedic Period:
Archeological
Literary
Archaeological Sources:
Sites: Atranjikheda
Hastinapur All found in Western UP
Ahichatra
Noh/Nuh – Haryana
Pottery – Painted Gray ware (PGW) are found at almost all sites in Western UP.
Painted Grey ware
Grains – Barley, Wheat and Rice evidences are found. Rice (vrihi) suddenly gained a lot of importance.
Tools: At around 1000 BC, the discovery of a new metal, revolutionalised the complete Vedic Society and enabled them to lead a settled life. This new metal was IRON. Now, weapons and agricultural tools were made of IRON which was much stronger than copper.
Literary Sources:
Since the Vedic Society has expanded, it reached upper Gangetic basin from Indus Valley. All the later Vedic texts were composed in Upper Gangatic Basin only.
Yajurveda:
This was the second Veda to be composed after the Rig Veda. It consists of rituals of sacrifices and yajna.
It is broadly divided into two parts – ‘Sweta’ Yajurveda and ‘Shyam’ Yajurveda.
Shweta Yajurveda is in Poetic form while Shyama Yajurveda is in prose form.
(Note: Rig Veda was composed completely in poetic form.)
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Samaveda:
Samveda consists of musical hymns which could be sung. Most of the hymns were taken from Rig Veda itself.
Samveda can also be considered as the oldest text on music.
Atharva Veda:
Atharvaveda is folk literature.
It consists of charms, spells and magic to ward of evil spirits and diseases.
First time Ayurveda is mentioned in Atharvaveda.
Note: the previous three Vedas were written by Aryans while Atharvaveda is written by non – Aryans. So its contents also throw a light on the beliefs and practices of non – Aryans.
Brahmanas:
Brahmanas are the commentary on Vedas. They explain the complex verses of the Vedas. They are the first complete literature in prose.
The most famous Brahmana is the ‘Shatpat’ Brahmana of the Yajurveda.
Aranyakas (jungle book/hermit book) were originally the part of the Brahmans but later considered as a separate part.
Upanishads: The literal meaning of ‘Upanishad’ is to sit down near someone.
Originally there were 108 books. It is historically believed that they came out as a result of the increasing grip of Brahmans on the society. They discuss about the importance of rituals and sacrifices. They deal with metaphysics i.e. relation between man and God.
Some famous Upanishads:
Brihadranayaka Upanishad (The oldest), Chandokya, Jabala , Katha, Ken, Isa etc.
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Brahmanas are regarded as the basis of the Hindu philosophy along with the Rigveda. In Upanishads Brahma (the creator) is the most important God.
Note: ‘Sirr – I – Akbar’ is the collection of translation of 50 Upanishads done by ‘Dara Shikoh’, the eldest son of Shah Jehan.
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ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND THE AGE OF THE RIGVEDA
Original home and identity
Aryans
It was a racial group.
Spoke – indo-european language
Lived in – southern Russia to central asia
Aryans were aware of rivers forests
Earliest life – pastoral
o Agriculture – 2nd occupation
Important role of horse in their life
o Horse came in their life in 6th millennium BC in black sea and Ural mountain area
o 60000 horse bones appear in Ural area (in 3000 BC)
Because of Horse’s swiftness, Aryans were able to inroad in West Asia.
Aryans in India
How do we know about their presence in India?
From Rigveda (earliest text of Indo – European languages)
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o Rigveda is one of the 4 Vedas. Rigveda was written about 3500 years. It contains more than 1000 hymns in praise of god and goddesses by sages. It was written in Vedic Sanskrit or old Sanskrit.
It consists of 10 mandalas or books.
o Book 2 to 7 - earliest portion
o Book 1 and 10 – seems to be latest addition
o It has many things common with Avesta (oldest text in Iranian languages)
o Avesta and Rigveda had used common names for several gods and social classes.
What has been written in Rigveda about Aryans?
o Aryan term occurs 36 times
o It was considered a cultural community
Earliest example of Indo-European language is found in an inscription of 2200 BC from Iraq. Later example occurs in following inscriptions -
Coming of Aryans has no clear and definite archaeological evidence
They came to India in 1500 BC
Maybe they have used socketed axe, bronze dirks and swords – found in North western India
Horse and horse sacrifices archaeological evidences – Southern Tajikistan (central Asia) and swat valley (pak.)
Earliest Aryan lived – eastern Afghanistan, NWFP, Punjab and fronts of UP
Rivers known to the Rigvedic Aryans or early Vedic Aryans
o Kubha river (Afghanistan)
o Indus river and its 5 tributaries (mentioned many times in Rigveda)
o River sarswati (in rigveda – naditarana or best of the river) – it had been identified as ghaghhar – hakra channel inharyana and rajasthan but according to rigvedic description it is a avestan river harkhwati or present Helmond river in south Afghanistan
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On region in which Aryan first settled in India is called as saptasaindhwa or land of the 7 rivers (indus + its 5 tributaries + sarswati)
Dasas and Dasyus
Aryan came 1st in 1500 BC they not come all in one go but in parts.
o After coming into India they have differences with indigenous inhabitants called Dasas, dasyus etc.
Dasas
Dasa have been also mentioned in ancient Iranian so maybe they were early branches of Aryans who got changed their color due to constant intermarriages
According to Rigveda – divodasa defeated sambara. Divodasa was a chief and belong to bharata clan. (in this case dasa appears in the name of the divodasa so now you can link dasa and aryanas)
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Dasyus
Dasyus – possibly the original inhabitants of country.
Aryan chief who overpowered them was called trasadasyu
Aryan chief was soft towards dasa but hostile towards dasyus
Dasyuhatya – this term repeated many times in RV which literally means killing of dasyus.
Possibility they don’t kept cattles and were worshippers of phallus
Tribal conflicts
Weapons and adversaries by Aryans – very little know
Succeeded everywhere because of chariot driven by horses. Indra Called purander (in RV) – meaning destroyer of forts Evidences of fort – not found, may be they are in Afghanistan
To introduce chariots in India – Aryans
Soldiers possessed coats of mail (varman) and better arms.
Figure coats of mail
Aryan engage in 2 type of conflicts –
o Fight with pre –aryans
o Fight with themselves (indra –tribal conflicts)
Panchajana – divison of Aryans in to 5 tribes but here exist other tribal as well
Aryan fought among themselves and sometimes get support from non – Aryan people.
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Battle of 10 kings
Bharatas and tristu – ruling clans of Aryans and got support by Vasishtha.
Bharatvarsha country was named after tribe Bharata – 1st appeared in RV
10 chiefs (5 were head of Aryan tribes and rest 5 were non-Aryan people) opposed bharat ruling clan.
The battle fought on banks of river Parushani, identical with river Ravi
Who won – Sudas won and supremacy of bharatas was established.
Purus – one of the tribes who got defeated.
Later bharats joined hands with purus and formed a new ruling called kurus (Bharat + kuru = Purus)
Kurus with panchalas establish their rule in upper Gangetic basin.
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Material life
How they got success in wars in India?
Because of horses, chariots, bronze arms
But we don’t find any archaeological evidence of above mentioned things.
Spoked wheel
Probably 1st to introduce spoked wheel
Copper
Possible supply – khetri mines (Rajasthan)
Agriculture
Better knowledge of agri.
Ploughshare – mentioned in RV (but some consider it later addition)
o Maybe it was made of wood
Know – sowing, harvesting, thrashing and different seasons
It was also known to pre-Aryans
Agriculture was mainly produce fodder
Pastoral
EVA (early Vedic Aryans or rig Vedic Aryans) can be called predominantly a pastoral people because there were lot of references to cow and bull in RV (Rigveda).
Most of wars was were sake of cows
o Gavishthi – war for cow
o Cow seems most important form of wealth
Gifts made to priests consists of cows and women slaves (for domestic works) and not land
Land was important because of agriculture, grazing and settlement but not as a private property
Craftsmen
RV mentions
o Carpenter
o Chariot maker
o Weaver
o Leather worker
o Potter etc.
Practiced all crafts
Metal working was also known to them. Ayas term was used for copper or bronze
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Trade
No evidences of regular trade
They mostly know about land routes and not sea routes as RV mentions sea as just collection of water
Cities
Don’t live in cities
Lived in - some kind of fortified mud settlements which still are to be discovered
They know about caves in mountains.
Pre-Iron phase
Bhagwanpura (Haryana) and 3 sites (in Punjab) have some evidences of PGW with “late Harappan pottery”.
Date of these findings – 1600 BC to 1000 BC which is also to nearby times of RV
These geographical area is also represented in RV
Iron and cereals were absent
So we can think of pre-iron phase of PGW which coincide with RV phase.
A 13 room mud house had also been discovered which could have for tribal chief.
Tribal Polity
Tribal chief
Tribal chief – center of administration machinery
Successful leadership in war
Called as Rjana
King’s post gradually become hereditary
He was just a chief with not unlimited power
He had to reckon with tribal organizations
Election of king by tribal assembly called samite
King was protector of his tribe
He protects tribes’ cows
Fought war for tribe
Offer pray to god on behalf of tribe.
Tribal assembly
Sabha, samite, Vidhata, Gana – Tribal or the clan based assemblies. Sabha and samiti were most important
Sabha – council of clan members or assembly of Brahmanas and elders
Samiti – assembly of common man. Both men and women can participtate in it. Remember we have read just above that it also selects king
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Sabha, samite exercised deliberative, military and religious functions
Chiefs or king tried to win the support of Sakas and samitis because of their importance
Purohita
One of important functionary to help chief or king in day to day admin.
Vashista and vishwamitra were 2 most important priest during RV times.
Vasishta – Conservative
Vishwamitra – Liberal
He composed the gayatri mantra to widen the aryan worls
They inspire kings for action and praise their exploits expecting rewards fro king in the form of women slaves and cows.
Senani
Senani is the next important functionary
He used spears, axes, swords etc.
Taxes
Ther is no evidences found for the officer who collects taxes
Bali – voluntary presentation people to king
War booty was distributed among kings and its people
Justice
No officer
There were cases of theft and burglary and theft of cows. RV mentions traditional rules were used to deal with it.
Spies were employed to keep an eye on unsocial activates.
Officials who administer smaller territories
Vrajapati – officer who enjoyed with over large land or pasture ground. He led the kulapa or gramanis
Kulapas – were head of families
Gramani – head of the fighting group
Initially he was just a head of a small tribal fighting unit. But after setting of village he become identical with Vrajapati.
Army
The king didn’t maintain any regular or standing army
In times of war, king mustered military whose military function were performed by different tribal groups vrata, gana, grama and sardha
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In other words, the tribal polity’s military element was stronger. No civil system or territorial admin because of nomadic life of people.
Tribal and family
Jana
Kingship – it was the basis of the social structure
Man was identified by his clan
Tribe was called as jana and people’s primary loyalty was to tribe
Total no. pf memebers in a jana and people’s primary loyalty was to tribe
Total no. of memebers in a tribe about 100
Term Jana occurs 75 times in RV. While term janapada not used even once
Because of non-evolvement of king or territory people’s attachment was to tribe
Vis
This was another name for tribe. It had been mentioned 170 times in RV
Vis was divided into many grama (smaller tribal units for fighting)
War or samgrama – clashing of gramas with one another
Family
Kula – term for family. It was rarely mentioned in RV
The family during EVA times was of joint family. Everyone from moher, father, sons to grandson, cousin live under one roof.
Griha – this term was used for family in EVA times.
In earliest Indo European language one word was used for nephew, grandson, cousin etc indicating differentiation in family relationship leading to nuclear damilies had not started
Father – head of the family
Patriarchal society
o Because of patriarchal, birth of son was desired again and again
o People prayed for son who is brave and fought wars
In RV desire for children and cattle is repeating but no desire express for daughters
Woman
They attended assemblies
Some rituals were not considered complete without company of wife. (for example in yagya pooja)
Vishavara and lopamudra were the girls who have composed hymns of RV (remember names by - Dr Visvesvaraya ki mudra lop (lost) ho gyi)
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Hymns during that period was composed orally and no literary evidences exist
Marriage institution
Institution of marriage was established.
Symbols of primitive practices also survived
Instances of polyandry were also found
Marriage was indislouble and the concept of divorce was absent
Child marriage – absent
Widow Remarriage – allowed
Marriageable age – 16 to 17
Social divisions
Consciousness about physical appearance had started in 1500 – 1000 BC
Varna – It was the term used for colour
Aryans were fair in color while original inhabitants of country were dark in colour
Colour may have been used for different social orders. Western writers have exaggerated this racial distinction
Factor which contributed most to the creation of social divisons was the conquest of indigenous inhabitants by the Aryans
E.g. – Dasas and Dasyus conquered by the Aryans were treated as slaves and Shudras
According to RV there were two varnas – Arya varna and Dasa varna
Another factor was more share of king and priests in warbooty, which created social inequalities in the tribe
Society was divided in 3 groups –
o Brahmana – Priest – learnings
o Kshatriya – Warrior – administration and military
o Vaishya – people – production activities
o The 4th division shudra appeared in last phase of EVA. Refrences of it are found in the Purusukta hymn of 10th mandala of RV.
Slaves
Slaves were given as gifts to the priests
Women slaves – they were only for domestic prposes
Slaves were not used directly in agriculture or other producing activities.
Division based on occupation
Division on based of occupation was there but it wasn’t sharp. Anyone could change his profession.
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One of the member of a family says - “I am a poet, my mother is corn grinder and my father is a physician. We belong to different varnas by our profession but still love together”
Prince and princess rise at the cost of common tribal people
Because eco. Was pastoral and surplus was also not significant. So, there were less ways to collect regular tribute from people (India’s economy was not like today’s fastest growing economy and so less tax collection)
Gifts of land and cereals were rare.
Social division based on tax collection or accumulation of landed property – absent
Society was tribal and egalitarian
Rig Vedic gods
EVA were not able to explain the reasons of natural forces and so they found their religion in these surroundings.
Because they were not able to understand the rains, sun and moon they personified these natural forces.
o They give them human or living being attributes.
Many poets, sages had composed lot of hymns in praise of gods and goddess in RV
Indra
Also known as Purandara or breaker of forts.
They played the role of war lord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons.
250 hymns were devoted to him
Rain of god i.e. he was responsible for causing rainfall
Agni
200 hymns devoted to him
God of fire
Fire use – burning forests, cooking, rituals etc.
Cult of fire - it occupied a central place in India awa Iran.
He was considered as intermediary between gods and people
The sacrifices to god were carried by smoke to the sky, thus transmission to gods.
Varuna
He was the 3rd most important god
He was the god of water
He was supposed to uphold the natural order
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It was considered that whatever happened in world were because of desires of Varuna god.
Soma
God of plants
An intoxicating drink was made from plants brought from Himalayas and it was named after Soma god
Marut
God of storm
Rig Vedic goddess
E.g. of female divinities
o Aditi
o Usha – represented appearance of the dawn
But these were not prominent in the time of RV
Because of patriarchal society the male gods were more important than female.
Mode of worshipping
Recitation of prayers and offerings of sacrifices was dominant mode.
Prayers were important and both collective and individual prayers were made.
Every tribe or clan has a special god. Even today we habe special god for most of tribe or clans. For e.g. in rjasthan there is Karni clan. The chief diety of their clan is Karni mata
o Whloe clan offers prayers to god in singing manner. Similarly, whole clan also offer sacrifices to god. Sometimes even animals were also sacrificed. You would have heard many times bhais bali (buffalo sacrifice)
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Agni and Indra were also Invited to take the sacrifices made by whole tribe.
Q. Why did people worship god in times of RV?
First ask yourself why we worship god today?
UPSC aspirants – Bhagwan bas ek bar ias bna do fir hr saal aunga me
For 10th standard boy/girl – bhgwan bs merit me /aa jana
Similarly RV people worship for – Praja (child), pashu (Cattle), food, wealth etc.
And not for spiritual upliftment or ending the miseries of existence.
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THE LATER VEDIC PHASE: TRANSITION TO THE STATE AND SOCIAL ORDERS
Expansion in the later vedic period (c. 1000-500 BC)
Later Vedic (V). period history is also based on Vedic texts but we are not talking about RV we are talking about the other 3 vedas which were composed after the Rig veda age.
Samhitas - the collection of the Vedic hymns or mantras. Rigveda Samhita is the oldest Samhita. we have read about RV in previous chapter.
Other than RV there were 3 more Vedas – Sama Veda, Yajurveda and Atharava Veda.
Samaveda
For the purpose of recitation, the prayers of RV were set to tune and this collection was known as Sama Veda.
Yajurveda
This Veda contains not only recitation of hymns but also rituals of prayers which have to lee accompanied with hymns recitation. The rituals reflect the social and political milieu in which they were made.
Atharvaveda
This Veda contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases.
The contents of Atharva Veda show beliefs and practices of Non-Aryans.
Bahamans
Vedic Samhita were followed by the composition of a series of texts known as the Brahmana.
Bahamans are full of ritualistic formula and explain the social and religions meaning of rituals.
All of these later Vedic texts compiled in the upper Gangetic basin in during time period 1000-500BC. This period is later than RV period and so called as Later Vedic period.
PGW sites
During 1000-500 BC in the Gangetic basin digging and exploration had revealed 700 sites which were inhabited.
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These 700 sites are called as PGW sites because they were inhabited by people who used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted Grey pottery.
They also used Iron weapons.
Living pattern
With the literary evidences (later Vedic texts) and archaeology evidences (PGW iron-phase) we can get to know that how people live in first millennium BC in western UP and adjoining areas of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.
According to LV texts Aryans covered area between Punjab to Ganga - Yamuna doab.
2 major tribes during this period - Bharatas and Purus.
As we have read, Bharatas + Puru = kurus
Initially they lived b/w Sarasvati and Drishadvati (i.e. on the fringe of the doab)
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(see in the above map) Kurus occupied Delhi and upper portion of the Doab in kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus.
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Kurus gradually united with the Panchal (occupied the middle portion of Doab)
So now the authority of the kurus and Panchals spreads and over Delhi & upper and middle parts of the doab.
you can remember the 2 clans easily. You would have definitely watched the Mahabharata serial. So, kurus were Dhritrashtra, Bhism pitamah, 5 pandavas and Panchal was state from which Draupdi belongs and so sometimes she was also called as panchali.
Mahabharata
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The great epic (Hope you remember the images)
It was a war between Kauravas and Pandavs (both belonged to Kuru clan)
war fought around -950BC.
Reason for war - Mainly for who will rule (Pandava’s wanted few villages, which kauravas declined) and indirectly for the revenge of disrespect of Draupdi.
Result - Pandas emerged victorious and most of Kauravas were killed.
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Excavations at Hastinapur of period 900 B. C. to 500 B.C doesn't answer the description of Hastinapur in the Mahabharata because the epic was finally compiled much later in the 4th century AD
Use of bunts bricks - during LVA period they don't know about brunt bricks
Because the structures were made of mud in the hastinapur they had not lasted.
Repeated floods had forced the Hastinapur’s Kuru clan to move to Kaushambi (Allahabad)
Panchal's kingdom
Covers – modern district of bareilley, Badaun and Farukkhabad.
It was famous for its philosopher kings and Brahmana theologians.
Spread toward east
During the ending of LVA period i.e. arounf 600 BC the Vedic people spread from doab to further Kosala (Eastern UP) and Videha (north Bihar) (see above green map)
Koshala – It is associated with the story of Ram but it wasn’t mentioned in the Vedic literature.
During the spread towards eastern and western side LVA came into conflict with local inhabitants
o In Eastern UP – people who used copper implements and black and red earthen pots
o In western UP – people who used pots of ochre or red color and copper implements
o They also encountered thin habitations of some people using black and red ware
o They also came against users of late Harappan culture, which were actually conglomerate culture
o Whoever was the opponent but they were not in large no. or covered area greater than LVA
LVA were more successful in expansion than EVA because they used iron weapons and horse drawn chariots
The PGW - Iron phase culture and later Vedic economy
Iron and LVA
1000 BC iron appeared in Dharwar, Karnataka but how it spreads from here is unclear
At the same time, it was reported in Gandhar, Pakistan
Burials with iron implements are found in large no.
Also found in baluchistan, eastern Punjab, western UP, MP and Rajasthan.
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Use of Iron by LVA
In arrow heads and spear head in western UP – 800 BC
Iron weapons to defeat adversaries which were faced during expansion and speed
Iron axe to clear the forests in upper gangetic basin
Few iron tool for agriculture
Spread of iron in Eastern part
During the end of LVA period knowledge of iron spreads to eastern UP and Videha
Earliest iron implements from here belongs to 7th C BC. Iron was called as Shyama or Krishna ayas in LV texts
Agriculture
It was the chief means of livelihood. But still very few agricultural tools made of iron have been found
According to LV texts 8, 12, and 24 oxen yoked to plough. But this seems exaggeration.
Ploughing – done with wooden ploughshare which would have worked for light soil of upper gangetic plains
Availability of bullocks – it could have been limited for agriculture purposes because of cattle slaughter in sacrifices
Ploughing rituals – today you have seen whenever we do a new thing like starting a new business or new machine we do some prayers and rituals similarly there were ploughing rituals which were done before ploughing. Evidence of it are found in Shatapata Brahmana text
Upper classes don’t hesitate to take to manual labour during these days. Father of sita and king of videha, Janka can be mentioned as example. One another example could be of Balram (elder brother of Krishna) who was called as Haladhar or wielder of the plough.
But in later times ploughing was restricted to lower Varna. In other words; it was prohibited for the members of upper Varna.
Crops
Continue to produce Barley
Wheat and rice became chief crop in this period
In Punjab and UP wheat was staple food
Lentil was also produced by them
Rice
They become familiar with rice in doab
Called it as Vrihi in Vedic texts
It’s remains discovered from Hastinapur (8th C BC) and atranjikhera (etah district0
Rice was used in vedic rituals but wheat’s use was rare.
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Crafts
Rise of diverse arts and crafts like smiths, smelters, weaving, carpenter, pottery, jewel workers
Smiths and smelters
Worked with iron in about 1000 BC
Copper was the 1st metal to be used by people
Founding of copper tools of pre 1000 BC period suggested existence of copper smiths in LV period
They would have used Khetri mines of Rajasthan probably
Copper objects had also been in PGW SITES
Main purpose of these objects was – war, hunting and as ornaments
Pottery
LV people know about 4 types of Pottery – Black and red ware, black slipped ware, PGW and red ware
Red ware was most popular and found all over western UP
PGW was most distinctive pottery. Bowls and dishes made of it were used by upper classes for eating and rituals.
Glass hoards and bangles were treated as prestige objects
Jewel workers
Mentioned in later Vedic texts
Possibly they were to serve the needs of richer section of society
Others
Weaving – confined to women and not on large scale
Leather work and carpenter were also existed
Settlement
Later Vedic people had a settled life because of agri and various crafts
PGW sites were widespread in Kuru- Panchal near (eastern UP and Delhi), Madrea area (Punjab and Haryana ), Matsya area (Rajasthan)
More than 700 PGW sites have been found but only few like atranjikhera, Hastinapur and Noh were excavated
There debris thickness is on to three layers showing settlements would have lasted from 1 to 3 centuries
These settlements were new. In other words, they were not having any predecessors
Living – mud brick houses
Structure of houses – poor
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PGW people who seems to be similar LV people were agricultural and had settled life
Food production – not in surplus because of wooden ploughshare use
No surplus → no emergence of towns
Emergence of towns
Towns had started emerging only in the end period of LV
For e.g. Hastinapur and Kausambhi were the primitive towns. They can be called as proto – urban sites.
Sea and sea voyages - references were found in Vedic texts indicating that because of rise of new arts and crafts some kind of commerce had been started
In summary – compared to EV period, LV had registered a great advance in material life.
o Pastoral and semi nomadic to agriculture and settled life (agriculture – primary source of livelihood)
o Permanently settled in upper gangetic plains
o Peasants produce enough surplus to sustain themselves and for those who are engaged in other works
Political organization
Assemblies
RV times assemblies lost importance (Vidatha completely disappeared)
Royal power increased at the cost of these assemblies
Sabha and samite were dominated by chiefs and roch nobles
Sabha was dominated by nobles and brahamans and women were not allowed.
Tribe connected to territory
Formation of bigger kingdom made chief or king more powerful
Territory was named after the dominant tribe , though the tribe was ruled by chief and prince
Other tribes might be inhabited in that territory like minority
Territory name was given after the first tribe which settled there
Example – panchala was name of people but then it became name of region
Rashtra term indicating territory first appeared in this period
Elelction of King
The one who was best in physical and other qualities was elected as raja.
He received Bali (voluntary presents) from ordinary kinsmen or vis (common people)
Chief or king tried to ever last the right to receive presents and enjoy other privileges by making his office hereditary
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Succession rules
Initially Rule of primogeniture was followed
But it wasn’t followed always
Example – mahabahrata (duryodhan usurped power)
Kingship knows no kinship
Rituals
The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals.
Rajasuya sacrifice
Figure - King Yudhishthira Performs the Rajasuya Sacrifice
It was supposed to confer supreme powers on king.
It involves soma pressing, a chariot drive, the king shooting arrows from his bow, and a brief cattle “raid.”
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Ashvamedha
A horse was let loose to wander freely and it was guarded by the raja’s men. If the horse wandered into the kingdoms of other rajas and they stopped it, they had to fight.
If they allowed the horse to pass, it meant that they accepted that the raja who wanted to perform the sacrifice was stronger than them.
These rajas were then invited to the sacrifice, which was performed by specially trained priests, who were rewarded with gifts.
The raja who organised the sacrifice was recognised as being very powerful, and all those who came brought gifts for him.
Vajapeya or chariot race
Royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen.
Administration at higher levels
It seems that during this period taxes and tributes were common.
It was deposited with an officer called as Sangirihitri.
At the time of big sacrifices princes made large scale distributions.
Priest, commander, chief queen and few other higher functionaries assisted king in discharging his duties.
Administration at lower levels
Village assemblies carried out lower level administration.
These assemblies were headed by chiefs of dominant clans.
Local cases were also tried by them.
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Army
Even in this period the king doesn’t have standing army.
Tribal units were mustered when a war was declared i.e. only when required.
According to one ritual king have to eat with his people (vis) from same plate.
Social organization
Society
Later Vedic society was divided into 4 varnas – Brahmanas, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras.
Later Vedic texts draw a demarcation line between upper 3 varnas and shudras.
But there are many rituals of king’s coronation on which shudras participated.
Certain sections of artisans such as chariot-maker or Rathakara was given a high status and also entitled to sacred thread ceremony.
Even in later Vedic times varna distinctions had not gone so far.
Brahmanas
Growing cult of sacrifices increased their importance in society.
Initially Brahmanas were one of the 16 classes of priests but later they overshadowed them and emerged as most important class.
This development in Brahmana was not found in Aryan society outside India.
It is believed that non-non-Aryan elements had a role in formation of Brahaman varna.
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What was Brahmanas work –
o Conducting rituals and sacrifices.
o Officiating festivals associated with the agricultural operations
o Praying success of their patron in war.
Kshatriyas
In return to Brahmanas, the king promised to not to harm them.
He tried to assert his power over all the three other varnas.
According to Aitareya Brahmana (a text of later Vedic age), Brahmana was described as seeker of livelihood and acceptor of gifts but removable at will of king.
While Vaishya was described as tribute payer, meant for beaten and to be oppressed at will.
Sometimes the upper two Varnas fought for supremacy but when it comes to deal with lower varnas they quickly made up their differences. From the end of the later Vedic period it was emphasized that the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas should cooperate with each other to rule over rest society.
Vaishyas
They were the common people.
They were assigned the producing functions like agriculture, cattle breeding etc.
Some worked as artisans.
During the end of the later Vedic period the Vaishyas started trade activities.
Vaishyas were just to pay tributes (like we taxpayers) and Brahamans and Kshatriyas were to collect tributes (tribute collectors).
The mass tribe men were reduced to tribute payers.
Several rituals were there which made the people submissive to king.
This was done with the help of priests who ere fattening by sucking the blood of vaishyas.
The upper 3 varnas were entitled to upnayana or investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras while the 4th one, shudra, was deprived of it and gayatri mantra’s recitation.
Shudras
Shudras were reserved for worst position
They were meant for serving the three higher varnas and were barred from the Vedic studies.
His master can beat him at will.
They appear as domestic slaves, craftsmen and hired labours in post Vedic times.
They were called cruel, greedy and thieving in habits and some of them were treated as untouchables.
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The higher the varna the more privileges and purer a person was. The lower the varna more severe punishment.
Family
Power of father increased. He could now disinherit his son.
Princely families – rule of primogeniture strengthened.
Male ancestors were started to be worshipped.
Women position
They were given a lower position.
Ordinarily women were considered as inferior and subordinate to men.
Some women theologians took part in philosophical discussions and some queens participated in coronation rituals.
Institution of gotra
It appeared in later Vedic times.
Gotra means cow-pen or the place where cattles belonging to whole clan are kept but in course of time it signified descent from a common ancestor.
Gotra exogamy practice started and marriage between same gotra or lineage was not allowed.
Ashramas
4 stages of life or Ashramas were not strengthened during the Vedic times.
In later Vedic times, 4 ashramas were there – Brahmachari (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (hermit) and sannyasin (asetic).
Later Vedic contains only 3 of them. Ascetic life was also known to them.
In the later Vedic times only the stage of householder was commonly practiced by all the varnas. Ashram or stage Age (years) Rituals of transition Brahmacharya (student life) Till 24 Upanayanaat entry. Samavartanaat exit.
Grihastha (household life)
24-48
Hindu wedding at entry. Vanaprastha 48-72
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(retired life)
Sannyasa (renounced life)
72+ (or anytime)
Gods, Rituals and Philosophy
It seems that whole of the Vedic literature had been compiled in the land of Kuru-Panchal i.e. doab.
Gods
2 important gods of Rig Vedic period – Indra and Agni lost its importance.
Now Prajapati occupied supreme position.
Prajapati – creator of world.
Rudra – god of animals
Vishnu – preserver and protector of people
Also in this period some objects were started to be worshipped as symbols of divinity; symbols of idolatry.
As the society divided into varna system, some sections came with their own deities.
For example – Pushan, god who was supposed to protect cattles, came to be regarded as god of the Shudras.
Sacrifices
Same reasons what was in early Vedic period.
Mode of worship changed.
Prayers were continued to recite but without sacrifices they were of no meaning (sacrifices became important).
In public sacrifices people and king was involved.
In domestic sacrifice individual was involved as these sacrifices were done at houses like first part of chappati to fire god.
Sacrifices involved killing of animals leading to loss of cattle wealth.
Ghoghana – guest or the person who was fed on cattle.
Sacrifices were accompanied by formulae which need to be correctly pronounced.
Yajmana was the term used for sacrifice.
It was believed that success of performer of yajna depended on magical power of the words uttered correctly in sacrifices.
Some rituals were similar to Indo-European people but most was developed by Indian priests.
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Brahmanas and rituals
Brahmanas had a very big role in inventing, modifying and expanding the formulas and sacrifices.
The reason for such elaborate rituals and sacrifices is not clear but selfish motives can’t be ignored. Near about 2,40,000 cows were given as dakshina or gift to priest in Rajasuya sacrifice.
Brahmanas claimed monopoly of priestly knowledge and expertise.
Gifts, gold, cloth and horses were also given to priests.
Sometimes priests ask for land as dakshina (payment for services of priest) but it wasn’t established in later vedic times.
According to shatapata Brahmana, north, east, south, west all should be given to Brahmana. But we know if they would have done this then what would have left to king.
So it was obvious that Brahmanas had desire to acquire land as much as much as possible.
There was a reference where land which was promised to Brahmana was refused to transfer him.
Reaction and Philosophy
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During the end of the later Vedic period, there was strong reaction against priestly domination, cults and rituals.
It was most in Panchala and Videh where in 600 B.C., the Upanishads (philosophical text) were compiled.
These philosophical texts had criticized the rituals and emphasized on the value of right belief and knowledge.
They also emphasized that the knowledge of the self or atma must be realized and relation between atma and Brahma should be properly understood.
Brahma – it emerged as powerful god.
As we have read that most reaction was in Panchala and Videh. The Kshatriyas princes of Panchala and Videh developed this kind of thinking and created an atmosphere for the reform of priestly dominated religion.
Their teachings also promoted the cause of the stability and integration. (how stability and integration is explained in next two points)
Emphasis on the changelessness, indestructibility and immortality of the atma or soul had served the cause of stability. This stability was very necessary for rising state power.
Stress on relation of atma with brahma served the cause of loyalty to superior authority.
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Summary
Emerging of territorial kingdoms
In later Vedic period, territorial kingdoms started emerging.
Now the kingdoms fought war for not only for possession of cattles but also for territory.
The famous Mahabharata war taken place during this period. (between Kaurav and Pandavas)
Change
The early Vedic society of predominantly pastoralists changed to agriculturalists in later Vedic age.
Tribe chiefs grew at the expense of tributes by peasants and other sections of society.
Shudras – still a small serving order.
Tribal society → varna divided society
Kshatriyas, even after the support of the Brahmanas, were not able to establish a state system.
A state cannot exist without regular taxation system and a professional army (like today India is a state having its own regular taxation system and with a professional army)
This wasn’t the case in later Vedic age as the existing mode of agriculture didn’t produce much surplus to pay taxes.
