Page 31
Chandragupta II: (380 – 415 AD)
Figure - Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II
He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. 1st Ujjain ruler to do so
He extended the limits of his empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
By marrying his daughter (prabhavati) to Vakataka prince, he exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India.
This move helped him later to conquer western malwa and Gujrat from Shakas.
He issued Silver coins. He was the first Gupta king to do so.
He made Ujjain his second Capital.
He was a great patron of Art and literature. It is believed that he had Navratnas in his court. It is a matter of debate whether Aryabhatta and Kalidasa were in his court or not.
Chandragupta’s inscription has been found in Udaigiri and Khandgiri.
Page 32
Udaigiri caves of Odisha
Fa hien: the first Chinese pilgrim came to India during 399 – 412 AD. i.e. during Chandragupta II reign.
Figure - Fa Hien
Page 33
He came through land and returned through sea route via Srilanka.
He came to collect the Holy Buddhist texts.
He visited several important Buddhist sites and cities, including Patliputra and praised the beauty of the throne of Chandragupta Maurya.
He wrote about different Buddhist sects in India.
He wrote about Indian society, there were things that he praised like Cultural diversity and certain things that he criticized like untouchability.
He did not write about any king of India or prevalent political conditions.
However, he did write about the moral character of Indians which he thought was good.
Kumaragupta
His inscription has been found from several of UP and MP like Mathura and Mandsor.
During his period, the Huns (Central Asian tribe) made their first attack in India.
During his period the famous Nalanda Buddhist monastery and University was built. He donated one village to it.
(Note: In those days, apart from religious studies. Pupils were taught life sciences and other crafts.)
Skandgupta
His famous inscription has been found in Junagarh.
This inscription informs us of the victory of Skandgupta over the Huns.
Gupta Administration:
Gupta kings adapted pompous titles such as paramesvara, maharajadhiraja and paramabhattaraka. This signifies that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire.
King was considered as divine. In ancient time, this theory was accepted in China and Persia as well. Samudragupta claimed he was the avatar of Vishnu on earth.
Kingship was hereditary.
There was no fixed rule for succession. (primogeniture not fixed)
King was an absolute monarch.
Largest number of gold coins is found from this period.
The violators of guild were punished by fine or excommunication.
Page 34
Army
The numerical strength - unknown.
A standing army was maintained. Feudatories occasionally supplemented the forces.
Cavalry came to the forefront.
Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.
Taxation system
Land taxation keep on increasing
Taxation on trade and commerce decreased
Taxation rate – ¼ to 1/6 of produce.
Local people had to feed army when it passes through the countryside
Villagers were subjected to forced labour called vishti for serving the royal army and officials.
Judicial system
More developed than earlier times
Several law books compiled
1st time demarcation of criminal and civil laws
Criminal law – theft and adultery
Civil law – disputes regarding various types of property
Elaborate laws laid down about inheritance
Like earlier time many laws continued to be based on differences in varnas.
It was the duty of the king to uphold the law.
The king tried cases with the help of Brahmana priests.
During this period autonomous trading bodies called ‘guilds’ were active.
Rules were made by the guilds for the member of the guilds like fixing the price, quality of goods and obligations of the members. Guilds used to interfere in some personal issues as well.
Guilds of artisans, merchants and others - governed by their own laws. Seals from Vaisali and from Bhita near Allahabad ludicate that these guilds flourished exceedingly well in Gupta times.
Bureaucracy
The ministers could hold more than one post unlike the Mauryan administration.
The post of some ministers and officers was also hereditary.
Page 35
The officers were also paid in land. This was the first time in history when officers were paid in the form of land. This led to the rise of feudalism. (Note: Satavahanas granted land to priests, not officers.)
The Brahmins got land grants with power to punish the people to maintain law and order. These villages were called Agrahara village or Brahmandeya Village.
The Guptas as compared to Mauryas had small size bureaucracy and the administration was more central
Provincial and Local administration
The empire was divided as –
Divisions (bhuktis) ? districts (vishayas) ? vithis ? villages.
Order of their officers –
Uparika (for bhuktis)? Vishayapati (for Vaisayas)
Gupta rulers did not require as many officials as the Mauryan did because –
Since much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries
State did not take part in economic activities on any big scale
Guilds participation in administration
Economy
Source – Fa Hien
According to him empire had lot of cities and rich people who give donations to Buddhism
Gold coins – largest in no.
o Not pure as kushanas
o Served to pay officers, meet the need of sale and purchase of lands
Silver coins – issued after the conquest of Gujrat for local exchange
Copper coins – very few
Decline in long distance foreign trade.
Eastern Roman empire learnt from the Chinese the art of growing Silk. This adversely affected the export trade of India.
Demand for Indian silk abroad had slackened.
Guild of silk weavers left their original home in Gujrat and migrated to Mandasor and took to other professions.
Page 36
Social Developments
Land grants to the Brahmanas on a large scale mean that the Brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times.
Caste System
The castes proliferated into numerous sub castes.
Professions were determined by caste though not very rigidly.
For example –
Brahmans - followed trade, architecture and service as professions. They had even become kings.
Vaishyas - The Gupta emperors were Vaishyas.
Kshatriyas – they followed commercial and industrial vocations.
Suhdras - There were many sub-castes among the Vaishyas and Sudras than among the higher castes. Sudras also could become traders and agriculturists like the Vaishyas.
Untouchables – lived outside the main settlements. They stroked a piece of wood while entering the city so that men might know of their coming and they could be avoided. They were engaged in hunting, fishery, scavenging and similar professions.
Family System
Joint family system was prevalent in the Hindu society.
Partitions or nuclear family in the lifetime of the father was not approved.
Ownership of property was vested in the father but the rights of sons and brothers to the property were also recognized.
Adoption was not very much approved.
The head of the family governed the family unit.
Patriarchal system - The male members dominated the family and society.
Position of Women under Gupta Empire
Though women were subordinate to men in society, yet their position was no less significant.
Their position improved than earlier periods.
She was idealized in literature.
They were given education but they could not recite the Vedic mantras.
Pre-puberty or child marriages were common.
Purdah had begun among the higher castes.
Page 37
Widow remarriage was allowed sometimes.
Sati example 1st – 510 AD
Ideally woman was regarded as Shakti, the energizing principle. A woman was considered as Saraswati and Goddess Kali, creator and destroyer.
They not only participated in public life but there is also reference to women teachers.
Permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They could also worship a new god called Krishna
Upper caste women were treated as property by their husbands.
o They were completely depended on husband for livelihood and it was expected that they would follow her husband to next world.
Lacked proprietary rights.
Buddhism and Bhagvatism
No longer received royal patronage.
According to Fa Hien Buddhism flourished but in reality it was not so important in the Gupta period as it was in the days of Asoka and Kanishka.
Instead Buddhism had been replaced by Bhagvatism
2 gods who commanded were - Vishnu and Siva.
Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion, and represented as the saviour of the varna system.
Vishnupuran – compilation of legends about Vishnu
Vishnusmriti – a law book was also name after this god.
4th century AD - Bhagavadgita, philosophical text, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna.
Siva - the god of destruction was also worshipped.
Idol Worship – became a common feature from this period.
The Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards the different religious sects.
Page 38
Literature:
Click here for higher resolution
Gupta age was a golden period of literature. Gupta literature can be broadly classified into
Religious literature
Secular literature
Religious Literature:
Puranas:
It literally means the ‘Past’.
There are 18 puranas written in ancient period some before Guptas, some during Guptas and some post Guptas.
Page 39
They are written in Chaste Sanskrit and are tales of Gods and Goddesses.
Some of the important Puranas are:
Adi purana
Agni Purana
Matsya Purana
Bhagwati Purana
Bhavisya Purana
Shiv Purana
Through these books we get the chronology of the ancient rulers/dynasties, including that of ‘Mahajanapadas’.
These literatures are a good source to know the contemporary society and culture and to understand different social institutions like marriage.
The books are written in future tense.
The modern Hindus treat them as holy books whereas reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy and Dayanand Saraswati condemned the Puranas and said that many social evils of Hindu society have their roots in Puranas. Dayanand Saraswati said, ‘Go back to the Vedas’.
Smritis:
Literally it means ‘Memory’.
These are the law books written in Gupta and pre- Gupta period.
Manu Smriti – the oldest Smriti written during post Mauryan period. It is the most comprehensive law book of the ancient time.
Narada Smriti – it gives a list of various privileges of Brahmans.
These smritis made or fixed laws for individual and society based on Varna system or caste heritage.
In general most important rights were reserved for the upper caste male and most duties especially physical duties were assigned to people of lower Varnas and females of all Varnas.
Most smritis assigned legalized property rights only to the male members of the family. Some smriti writers gave ‘Stree dhan’ a right of female but it was given only at the time of marriage and in the form of cash and jewelry.
In 18th C the British Government codified some laws of Manusmriti under the title, ‘ A code of Gentoo laws’. It was drafted in 1776.
Chandragupta II: (380 – 415 AD)
Figure - Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II
He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. 1st Ujjain ruler to do so
He extended the limits of his empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
By marrying his daughter (prabhavati) to Vakataka prince, he exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India.
This move helped him later to conquer western malwa and Gujrat from Shakas.
He issued Silver coins. He was the first Gupta king to do so.
He made Ujjain his second Capital.
He was a great patron of Art and literature. It is believed that he had Navratnas in his court. It is a matter of debate whether Aryabhatta and Kalidasa were in his court or not.
Chandragupta’s inscription has been found in Udaigiri and Khandgiri.
Page 32
Udaigiri caves of Odisha
Fa hien: the first Chinese pilgrim came to India during 399 – 412 AD. i.e. during Chandragupta II reign.
Figure - Fa Hien
Page 33
He came through land and returned through sea route via Srilanka.
He came to collect the Holy Buddhist texts.
He visited several important Buddhist sites and cities, including Patliputra and praised the beauty of the throne of Chandragupta Maurya.
He wrote about different Buddhist sects in India.
He wrote about Indian society, there were things that he praised like Cultural diversity and certain things that he criticized like untouchability.
He did not write about any king of India or prevalent political conditions.
However, he did write about the moral character of Indians which he thought was good.
Kumaragupta
His inscription has been found from several of UP and MP like Mathura and Mandsor.
During his period, the Huns (Central Asian tribe) made their first attack in India.
During his period the famous Nalanda Buddhist monastery and University was built. He donated one village to it.
(Note: In those days, apart from religious studies. Pupils were taught life sciences and other crafts.)
Skandgupta
His famous inscription has been found in Junagarh.
This inscription informs us of the victory of Skandgupta over the Huns.
Gupta Administration:
Gupta kings adapted pompous titles such as paramesvara, maharajadhiraja and paramabhattaraka. This signifies that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire.
King was considered as divine. In ancient time, this theory was accepted in China and Persia as well. Samudragupta claimed he was the avatar of Vishnu on earth.
Kingship was hereditary.
There was no fixed rule for succession. (primogeniture not fixed)
King was an absolute monarch.
Largest number of gold coins is found from this period.
The violators of guild were punished by fine or excommunication.
Page 34
Army
The numerical strength - unknown.
A standing army was maintained. Feudatories occasionally supplemented the forces.
Cavalry came to the forefront.
Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.
Taxation system
Land taxation keep on increasing
Taxation on trade and commerce decreased
Taxation rate – ¼ to 1/6 of produce.
Local people had to feed army when it passes through the countryside
Villagers were subjected to forced labour called vishti for serving the royal army and officials.
Judicial system
More developed than earlier times
Several law books compiled
1st time demarcation of criminal and civil laws
Criminal law – theft and adultery
Civil law – disputes regarding various types of property
Elaborate laws laid down about inheritance
Like earlier time many laws continued to be based on differences in varnas.
It was the duty of the king to uphold the law.
The king tried cases with the help of Brahmana priests.
During this period autonomous trading bodies called ‘guilds’ were active.
Rules were made by the guilds for the member of the guilds like fixing the price, quality of goods and obligations of the members. Guilds used to interfere in some personal issues as well.
Guilds of artisans, merchants and others - governed by their own laws. Seals from Vaisali and from Bhita near Allahabad ludicate that these guilds flourished exceedingly well in Gupta times.
Bureaucracy
The ministers could hold more than one post unlike the Mauryan administration.
The post of some ministers and officers was also hereditary.
Page 35
The officers were also paid in land. This was the first time in history when officers were paid in the form of land. This led to the rise of feudalism. (Note: Satavahanas granted land to priests, not officers.)
The Brahmins got land grants with power to punish the people to maintain law and order. These villages were called Agrahara village or Brahmandeya Village.
The Guptas as compared to Mauryas had small size bureaucracy and the administration was more central
Provincial and Local administration
The empire was divided as –
Divisions (bhuktis) ? districts (vishayas) ? vithis ? villages.
Order of their officers –
Uparika (for bhuktis)? Vishayapati (for Vaisayas)
Gupta rulers did not require as many officials as the Mauryan did because –
Since much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries
State did not take part in economic activities on any big scale
Guilds participation in administration
Economy
Source – Fa Hien
According to him empire had lot of cities and rich people who give donations to Buddhism
Gold coins – largest in no.
o Not pure as kushanas
o Served to pay officers, meet the need of sale and purchase of lands
Silver coins – issued after the conquest of Gujrat for local exchange
Copper coins – very few
Decline in long distance foreign trade.
Eastern Roman empire learnt from the Chinese the art of growing Silk. This adversely affected the export trade of India.
Demand for Indian silk abroad had slackened.
Guild of silk weavers left their original home in Gujrat and migrated to Mandasor and took to other professions.
Page 36
Social Developments
Land grants to the Brahmanas on a large scale mean that the Brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times.
Caste System
The castes proliferated into numerous sub castes.
Professions were determined by caste though not very rigidly.
For example –
Brahmans - followed trade, architecture and service as professions. They had even become kings.
Vaishyas - The Gupta emperors were Vaishyas.
Kshatriyas – they followed commercial and industrial vocations.
Suhdras - There were many sub-castes among the Vaishyas and Sudras than among the higher castes. Sudras also could become traders and agriculturists like the Vaishyas.
Untouchables – lived outside the main settlements. They stroked a piece of wood while entering the city so that men might know of their coming and they could be avoided. They were engaged in hunting, fishery, scavenging and similar professions.
Family System
Joint family system was prevalent in the Hindu society.
Partitions or nuclear family in the lifetime of the father was not approved.
Ownership of property was vested in the father but the rights of sons and brothers to the property were also recognized.
Adoption was not very much approved.
The head of the family governed the family unit.
Patriarchal system - The male members dominated the family and society.
Position of Women under Gupta Empire
Though women were subordinate to men in society, yet their position was no less significant.
Their position improved than earlier periods.
She was idealized in literature.
They were given education but they could not recite the Vedic mantras.
Pre-puberty or child marriages were common.
Purdah had begun among the higher castes.
Page 37
Widow remarriage was allowed sometimes.
Sati example 1st – 510 AD
Ideally woman was regarded as Shakti, the energizing principle. A woman was considered as Saraswati and Goddess Kali, creator and destroyer.
They not only participated in public life but there is also reference to women teachers.
Permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They could also worship a new god called Krishna
Upper caste women were treated as property by their husbands.
o They were completely depended on husband for livelihood and it was expected that they would follow her husband to next world.
Lacked proprietary rights.
Buddhism and Bhagvatism
No longer received royal patronage.
According to Fa Hien Buddhism flourished but in reality it was not so important in the Gupta period as it was in the days of Asoka and Kanishka.
Instead Buddhism had been replaced by Bhagvatism
2 gods who commanded were - Vishnu and Siva.
Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion, and represented as the saviour of the varna system.
Vishnupuran – compilation of legends about Vishnu
Vishnusmriti – a law book was also name after this god.
4th century AD - Bhagavadgita, philosophical text, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna.
Siva - the god of destruction was also worshipped.
Idol Worship – became a common feature from this period.
The Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards the different religious sects.
Page 38
Literature:
Click here for higher resolution
Gupta age was a golden period of literature. Gupta literature can be broadly classified into
Religious literature
Secular literature
Religious Literature:
Puranas:
It literally means the ‘Past’.
There are 18 puranas written in ancient period some before Guptas, some during Guptas and some post Guptas.
Page 39
They are written in Chaste Sanskrit and are tales of Gods and Goddesses.
Some of the important Puranas are:
Adi purana
Agni Purana
Matsya Purana
Bhagwati Purana
Bhavisya Purana
Shiv Purana
Through these books we get the chronology of the ancient rulers/dynasties, including that of ‘Mahajanapadas’.
These literatures are a good source to know the contemporary society and culture and to understand different social institutions like marriage.
The books are written in future tense.
The modern Hindus treat them as holy books whereas reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy and Dayanand Saraswati condemned the Puranas and said that many social evils of Hindu society have their roots in Puranas. Dayanand Saraswati said, ‘Go back to the Vedas’.
Smritis:
Literally it means ‘Memory’.
These are the law books written in Gupta and pre- Gupta period.
Manu Smriti – the oldest Smriti written during post Mauryan period. It is the most comprehensive law book of the ancient time.
Narada Smriti – it gives a list of various privileges of Brahmans.
These smritis made or fixed laws for individual and society based on Varna system or caste heritage.
In general most important rights were reserved for the upper caste male and most duties especially physical duties were assigned to people of lower Varnas and females of all Varnas.
Most smritis assigned legalized property rights only to the male members of the family. Some smriti writers gave ‘Stree dhan’ a right of female but it was given only at the time of marriage and in the form of cash and jewelry.
In 18th C the British Government codified some laws of Manusmriti under the title, ‘ A code of Gentoo laws’. It was drafted in 1776.
Very Good Post, Informative Content. Thank You.
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