CHAP 7 Administrative Changes After 1857

• CHANGED SITUATION AFTER 1857.

• Shock of revolt of 1857.

• Emergence of new colonial powers.

• British supremacy in world economy challenged.

• Large-scale British capital investment in India.

• CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT AT THE CENTRE.

• The Crown assumed the power to govern—to be exercised through a
secretary of state.

• Indians could be associated with legislative process in Imperial
Legislative Council, which had very limited power.

• CHANGES IN PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION.

• A process of financial and administrative devolution initiated in
1870.

Half-hearted and inadequate measures, aimed at increasing revenue
only, introduced.

CHANGES IN LOCAL BODIES A process of decentralisation
initiated in 1860s. Ripon's Resolution of 1882, a positive step.
Overall paucity of funds and absence of real powers.

CHANGES IN THE ARMY Supremacy of European branch ensured.

• Indian branch to be reorganised on the basis of balance and
counterpoise.

• Indians to be excluded from important and strategic locations and
branches.

• The Army to be used for the defence of the empire and its expansion,
and to promote commercial interests of Great Britain.

• PUBLIC SERVICES Very tough for Indians to be able to enter it.

• Subordinate them to British authority.

• ADMINISTRATIVE POLICIES Divide and Rule.

• Hostility to educated Indians.

• Zamindars and landlords propped as counterweights to the nationalists.

• Reversal of policy of support to social reforms.

• Social services ignored.

• Half-hearted and inadequate labour legislations introduced.

• Stifling of press wherever seen to be helping the nationalist upsurge.

• Racial arrogance.

 • FOREIGN POLICY Reach out to natural geographical frontiers for
internal cohesion and defence.

• Keep other European powers at an arm's length.

• Promote British economic and commercial interests.

CHAP 6 PART 3 National Movement 1939-1947

Election Results

CONGRESS won 57 out of 102 seats in Central Assembly — got majority in
Madras, Bombay, UP, Bihar, Orissa and Central Provinces and coalition
partner with Unionists and Akalis in Punjab.

MUSLIM LEAGUE won 30 reserved seats in Central Assembly—got majority in
Bengal, Sindh.

Why British Withdrawal Seemed Imminent by 1946

1. Success of nationalist forces in struggle for hegemony.

2. Demoralisation among bureaucracy and the loyalist sections.

3. Limitations of British strategy of conciliation and repression.

4. Demands of leniency for INA by armymen and RIN ratings' revolt.

5. An entirely official rule was impossible.


Main Aim of Government Policy Now

A graceful withdrawal after settlement on modalities of transfer of
power, and post-imperial Indo-British relations.

CABINET MISSION Proposals

Rejection of Pakistan.

Grouping of existing assemblies into three sections A, B, C.

Three-tier executive and legislature at province, princely states and
union level Provincial assemblies to elect a constituent assembly.

Common centre for defence, communications, external affairs.

Provinces to have autonomy and residual powers.

Princely states free to have an arrangement with the successor
government or the British Government In future, a province free to come
out of the section or the union Meanwhile, an interim government to be
formed from constituent assembly.

Interpretation

Congress claimed that the grouping was optional while the League thought
that the grouping was compulsory. Mission decided the matter in the

League's favour.

Acceptance League, followed by Congress, accepted Cabinet Mission
proposals in June 1946.

Further Developments: July 1946 League withdrew from the Plan after

Nehru's press statement, and gave a call for "direct action" from August
16, 1946.

September 1946 An Interim Government headed by Nehru sworn in.

October 1946 League joins Interim Government and follows an
obstructionist approach.

February 1947 Congress members demand removal of

League members; League demands dissolution of Constituent Assembly.

ATTLEE'S STATEMENT (FEBRUARY 20, 1947) June 30, 1948 as deadline for
transfer of power.

Power may be transferred to one centre or in some areas to existing
provincial governments.

MOUNTBATTEN PLAN JUNE 3, 1947

Punjab and Bengal Assemblies to take decision on partition. Sindh to take
its own decision Referendum to be held in NWFP and Sylhet district.

Two dominions to be created if partition is to take place, with two
Constituent Assemblies.

Freedom to be granted on August 15, 1947

JULY 18, 1947 British Parliament passes the "Indian Independence Act
1947" which is implemented on August 15, 1947.

CHAP 6 PART 2 National Movement 1939-1947

Muslim majority areas to exercise right to self-determination In case of
partition, common centre for defence, commerce, communications, etc.

Jinnah rejected the offer as he wanted Congress to accept the two-nation
theory.

DESAI-LIAQAT PACT Congress and League nominees to have equal
representation in Central Executive.

20% of seats reserved for minorities.

WAVELL PLAN (SHIMLA CONFERENCE-JUNE 1945)
An all-Indian executive council except the governor-general and
commander-in-chief Equal representation for caste Hindus and Muslims.

Muslim League wanted all Muslims to be its nominees and
claimed a communal veto in the executive council.

Congress objected to it
being painted purely as a caste Hindu party.

LAST TWO YEARS OF BRITISH RULE : Two basic strands

1. Tortuous negotiations resulting in freedom and partition, accompaniedby communal violence .

2. Sporadic, localised mass action.


July 1945 Labour Government comes to power in Britain.

August 1945 Elections to central and provincial assemblies announced.

September 1945 Announcement of a Constituent Assembly after War.

A change in Government's attitude due to
Change in global power equations;

UK no longer a power

Labour Government sympathetic to India;

Tired British soldiers and shattered British economy;

Anti-imperialist wave throughout Asia ;

Officials feared another Congress revolt.

Two Main Election Planks for Congress

1. Repression of 1942

2. Mass pressure against trial of INA POWs.

INA Agitation—Main Features

Had unprecedented, high pitch and intensity.

Had wide geographical and social spread.

Penetrated traditional bulwarks of Raj.

Government employees and loyalists With each day, became a purely India

versus Britain, issue Three Upsurges

1. November 21, 1945 in Calcutta over INA trials.

2. February 11, 1946 in Calcutta over seven-year sentence to an INAofficer.

3. February 18, 1946 in Bombay, strike by Royal Indian Navy Ratings.

Congress did not support these upsurges because of their timing and
tactics .

CHAP 6 PART 1 National Movement 1939-1947

CONGRESS STAND ON EVE OF WORLD WAR II:
It would cooperate in war if

(i) freedom was given after the War.

(ii) some form of genuinely responsible government was
immediately set up.

September 1, 1939: World War-II broke out and Britain
declared India's support for war. September 10-14, 1939: At
CWC meeting at Vardha: Gandhi was for unconditional support
to Britain's war efforts.


Subhash Bose and Leftists were, for
taking advantage of Britain's difficulties and starting a
mass movement to dislodge colonialism.

Nehru recognised the imperialist nature of the war, but was against taking
advantage of Britain's difficulties, as well as against
Indian participation in war.

The CWC resolved—No Indian
participation unless freedom is granted; Government should
declare its war aims soon.

LINLITHGOW'S STATEMENT (OCTOBER
17, 1939) Britain's war aim is to resist aggression. All
interest groups are to be consulted to modify 1935 Act for
future. Immediately a "consultative committee" is to be
formed for advising functions.


CONGRESS' RESPONSE
No Indian support to the war Congress ministries in
provinces to resign But no immediate mass struggle to be
launched.


 MARCH 1940 "Pakistan Resolution" passed at Lahore
session of Muslim League AUGUST OFFER (AUGUST 1940).
Dominion status to be the long-term objective After the war.
constituent assembly to be formed comprising mainly Indians


Minorities consent to be essential for any future settlement.
Congress rejected the Offer
OCTOBER 1940 Congress launched individual civil disobedience movement;
25000 satyagrahis courted arrest;


MARCH 1942 Japan reached Rangoon after having overrun almost the whole
of South-East Asia.

CRIPPS MISSION (MARCH 1942) It offered—
an Indian Union with dominion status, with right to withdraw from
Commonwealth.


after war, a constituent assembly elected by provincial assemblies to
frame the constitution.

freedom to any province unwilling to join the Union to have a separate
agreement with Britain. Meanwhile, defence of India to remain in British
hands.


The Congress objected to

* dominion status

* right of provinces to secede

* no immediate transfer of power

* retention of governor-general's supremacy.

The Muslim League objected to

* Pakistan not being explicitly offered.

the machinery for creation of Constituent Assembly.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

Why launch a movement now?

Failure of Cripps Offer, an evidence of British lack of will to concede

Indian demands.

Public discontent against wartime hardships.

A feeling of imminent British collapse.

Indian leadership's desire to prepare masses for possible Japanese invasion.

AICC Meeting (Bombay—August 8, 1942).

The meeting ratified Quit India Resolution.

August 9, 1942 All prominent leaders arrested.

Major Activity

Public on rampage, especially Eastern UP, Bihar, Bengal— attacking
symbols of authority.

Underground activity.
to provide a line of command.

Parallel governments in Ballia (UP), Tamluk (Bengal) and Satara
(Maharashtra).

Sections participating included youth, women, workers, peasants,
government officials, some communists.

February 1943: Gandhi started a fast.

March 23, 1943: Pakistan Day observed.

C. RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA (MARCH 1944) League should immediately
support independence for India and cooperate in Interim Government After
War.

CHAP 5 REVOLUTIONARIES IN BENGAL PART 2

REVOLUTIONARIES IN BENGAL
Attempt on life of Calcutta police
commissioner-1924 Surya Sen's Chittagong Revolt Group and Chittagong
robberies1930.

REASONS FOR GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM

1. Socio-economic backwardness concessions used as a tool to fuel
communalism by colonial rulers.

2. British policy of divide and rule.

3. Communalism in history writing.

4. Chauvinist elements of sobio-religious reform movements.

5. Side-effects of militant nationalism.

6. Communal reaction by majority community.



SIMON COMMISSION Came in 1928 to explore possibility of further
constitutional advance.
Boycotted by Indians because no Indian
represented in the commission.

NEHRU REPORT (1928) First Indian effort to draft constitutional scheme.

Recommended—
* dominion status

* not separate electorates, but joint electorates with reserved seats
for minorities.

* linguistic provinces.

* 19 fundamental rights.

* responsible government at centre and in provinces.


CALCUTTA CONGRESS SESSION (DECEMBER 1928) One year ultimatum to
Government to accept dominion status or else civil disobedience to be
launched for complete independence.


LAHORE CONGRESS SESSION (DECEMBER 1929) Congress adopted complete
independence as its goal. Congress decided to launch a civil
disobedience movement. January 26, 1930 celebrated as the first
Independence Day all over the country.


DANDI MARCH (MARCH 12-APRIL 6, 1930). Led by Gandhi;
resulted in spread
of salt satyagraha to Tamil Nadu, Malabar, Andhra, Assam, Bengal.
Spread of the movement

Khudai Khidmatgars active in NWFP.

Textile workers active in Sholapur.

Salt satyagraha in Dharsana.

 No-chowkidara tax campaign in Bihar.

 Antichowkidara
and anti-union-board tax in Bengal. No-tax movement inGujarat.

Civil disobedience of forest laws in Maharashtra, Karnataka and

Central Provinces. Agitation against "Cunningham Circular" in Assam.

No rent campaign in UP.

Mass participation of women, students, some sections of Muslims, merchants and petty traders, tribals, workers and peasants.

• FIRST RTC (NOVEMBER 1930-JANUARY 1931) Congress did not attend.

• GANDHI-IRWIN PACT (MARCH 1931) Congress agreed to attend Second RTC and to withdraw CDM.


KARACHI CONGRESS SESSION (MARCH 1931) Endorsed Delhi Pact between
Gandhi and Irwin. Passed resolutions on economic programme and
fundamental rights.

• SECOND RTC (DECEMBER 1931) Right wing in Britain against concessions
to Indians. Session got deadlocked on question of safeguards to
minorities. December 1931 - April 1934 Second phase of CDM.

• COMMUNAL AWARD (1932) Provided separate electorates to depressed
classes. Nationalists felt this to be a threat to national unity.

Gandhi's fast unto death (September 1932) led to Poona Pact which
abandoned separate electorates for depressed classes in favour of
increased reserved seats for them.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935 Proposed—an All India Federation;
bicameral legislature at the centre; provincial autonomy; three lists
for legislation—federal, provincial and concurrent.

At centre, subjects
to be administered divided into reserved and transferred categories.
Provincial legislators to be directly elected. Early 1937—elections to
provincial assemblies held.


Congress ministries formed in Bombay,
Madras, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, Assam and
NWFP.

CHAP 5 NATIONALIST UPSURGE AT END OF WAR

Post-War economic hardship.

Nationalist disillusionment with imperialism worldwide.

Impact of Russian Revolution.

MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REFORMS Dyarchy in provinces. Two lists—reserved and
transferred—for administration. Reserved subjects to be administered by
governor through executive council and transferred subjects to be
administered by ministers from legislative council.


Extensive powers to governor, governor-general and secretary of state
for interference.

 Franchise expanded, powers also extended. Governorgeneral
to administer with an executive council of 8— three to be
Indians.

 Two lists for administration—central and provincial. Bicameral
central legislature—Central Legislative Assembly as the lower house and
Council of States as the upper house.


Drawbacks
Dyarchy arrangement too complex and irrational to be functional. Central
executive not responsible to legislature.



Limited franchise.
• GANDHI'S ACTIVISM IN SOUTH AFRICA (1893-1914) Set up Natal Indian
Congress and started Indian Opinion.

Satyagraha against registration certificates.

Campaign against restrictions on Indian migration.

Campaign against poll tax and invalidation of Indian marriages.

Gandhi's faith in capacity of masses to fight established; he was able to evolve his own style of leadership and politics and techniques of struggle.

GANDHI'S EARLY ACTIVISM IN INDIA

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)—First Civil Disobedience.

Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918)—First Hunger Strike.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918)—First Non-Cooperation.

Rowlett Satyagraha (1918)—First mass-strike.

National Movement 1919-1939 197

• KHILAFAT-NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT
• Three demands-

1. Favourable treaty for Turkey

2. Redrassal of Punjab wrongs

3. Establishment of swaraj.

Techniques used

Boycott of government-run schools, colleges, law courts, municipality
and government service, foreign cloth, liquor; setting up of national schools, colleges, panchayats and using khadi; second stage to include

civil disobedience by nonpayment of taxes.

Nagpur Congress Session (December 1920)—Congress goal changed to attainment of swaraj through peaceful and legitimate means from attainment of self-government through constitutional means.
Chauri-Chaura Incident (February 5, 1922) Violence by agitated mob—
prompted Gandhi to withdraw movement.

SWARAJISTS AND NO-CHANGERS

Swarajists advocated council entry after withdrawal of NonCooperation

Movement with an aim to end or mend the councils. No-changers advocated
constructive work during transition period.

• EMERGENCE OF NEW FORCES DURING 1920S

1. Spread of Marxism and socialist ideas

2. Activism of Indian youth

3. Peasants' agitations

4. Growth of trade unionism

5. Caste movements

6. Revolutionary terrorism with a tilt towards socialism.

• ACTIVITIES OF HRA HSRA Established-1924 Kakori robbery-1925

Reorganised-1928 Saunders' murder-1928 Bomb in Central Legislative

Assembly-1929 Bid to blow up viceroy's train-1929 Azad killed in police encounter-1931 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev hanged-1931.

CHAP 5 1907 TILL 1919

MAJOR CAUSE OF MODERATE-EXTREMIST SPLIT AT SURAT (1907)

Moderates wanted to restrict the Boycott Movement to Bengal and to a
boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.

 Extremists wanted to take the
movement to all parts of the country and include within its ambit all
forr; of association with the Government through a boycott of schools,
colleges, law courts, legislative councils, government service,
municipalities etc.

GOVERNMENT ACTS FOR REPRESSION OF SWADESHI MOVEMENT

Seditious Meetings Act (1907)

Criminal ,Law (Amendment) Act (1908)

Indian Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act (1908)

Explosive Substances Act (1908)

Indian Press Act (1910)

REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM


Reasons for emergence

Younger elements not ready to retreat after the decline of open phase.

Leadership's failure to tap revolutionary energies of the youth.

Government repression left no peaceful avenues open for protest.

Ideology

Assassinate unpopular officials, thus strike terror in hearts of rulers
and arouse people to expel the British physically; based on individual
heroic actions on lines of Irish nationalists or Russian nihilists and
not a mass-based countrywide struggle.




REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY BEFORE FIRST WORLD WAR

Bengal 1902—First revolutionary groups in Midnapore and Calcutta (The
Anushilan Samiti)

1906—Yugantar, the revolutionary weekly started By

1905-06—Several newspapers started advocating revolutionary terrorism.

1907—Attempt on life of governor of East Bengal.

1908—Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempt to murder Muzaffarpur
Magistrate, Kingsford.

Alipore conspiracy case involving Aurobindo. Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh and others.

1908—Barrah dacoity by Dacca Anushilan.

1912—Bomb thrown at Viceroy Hardinge by Rashbehari Boss and Sachin Sanyal
Sandhya, Yugantar—newspapers advocating revolutionary activity.

Maharashtra
1879—Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke.

1890s—Tilak's attempts to propagate militancy among the youth through
Shivaji and Ganapati festivals, and his journals Kesari and Maharatta.

1897—Chapekar brothers kill Rand, the plague commissioner of Poona and
Lt. Ayerst.

1899—Mitra Mela—a secret society organized by Savarkar and his brother.

1904—Mitra Mela merged with Abhinav Bharat.

1909—District Magistrate of Nasik—Jackson—killed.

Punjab
Revolutionary activity by Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh, Aga Haidar Syed
Haidar Raza, Bhai Parmanand, Lalchand 'Falak', Sufi Ambaprasad.
Abroad

1905—Shyamji Krishnavarma, set up Indian Home Rule Society and India
House and brought out journal The Sociologist in London.

1909—Madan Lal Dhingra murdered Curzon-Wyllie.
Madame Bhikaji Cama operated from Paris and Geneva and brought out
journal Bande. Mataram. Ajit Singh also active.



MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS
Number of elected members in Imperial and Provincial Legislative
Councils increased—elected non-officials still in minority.
Separate electorates, introduced for Muslims.

Elected non-officials to be elected indirectly—thus elections introduced
for the first time.

Legislatures could pass resolutions, ask questions and supplementaries,
vote separate items of the budget.

One Indian to be on viceroy's executive council.

Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderates
and the Muslims to the Government's side.

No responsibility entrusted to legislators—this resulted in thoughtless
criticism sometimes.

System of election was too indirect.


REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITY DURING FIRST WORLD WAR
In North America, the Ghadr was organized by Lala Hardayal, Ramchandra,
Bhawan Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Barkatullah, Bhai Parmanand.

The Ghadr Programme

Assassinate officials.

Publish revolutionary literature.

Work among Indian troops abroad and raise funds.

Bring about a simultaneous revolt in all colonies of Britain


Attempt to bring about an armed revolt in India on February 21, 1915

amidst favourable conditions created by the outbreak of First World War
and the Komagaia Mani incident (September 1914). The plan was foiled due
to treachery.

Defence of India Act, 1915 passed primarily to deal with the Ghadrites.
In Europe Berlin Committee for Indian Independence established by
Virendranath Chattopadhyay and others.

Missions sent to Baghdad, Persia, Turkey, Kabul.

In India Bagha Jatin organized revolutionary activity in Bengal and died
in an encounter (1915) in Balasore.



HOME RULE LEAGUE MOVEMENT Manifestation of a trend of aggressive
politics in national movement; was pioneered by Tilak and Annie Besant
on lines of a similar movement in Ireland.


Factors Favouring the Movement

1. Need being felt for popular pressure to attain concessions.

2. Disillusionment with Morley-Minto Reforms.

3. Wartime miseries—public ready to protest.

4. Tilak, Besant ready to assume leadership.



Aim of the Movement

To convey to the common man the concept of Home Rule as self-government.

Tilak's League—Started in April 1916 and operated in Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Central Provinces and Berar; had six branches.

Besant's League—Started in September 1916 and operated in rest of India;had 200 branches.

Later, the leagues were joined by others including Moderate Congressmen.

Methods used
Organising discussions, reading rooms, propaganda through public
meetings, newspapers, pamphlets, posters, etc.
Positive Gains Emphasis shifted to the masses permanently;
organisational link established between town and country; prepared a
generation of ardent nationalists, influenced Moderate-Extremist reunion
at Lucknow (1916).





LUCKNOW SESSION OF INC-1916
Extremists readmitted to Congress League-Congress put up joint demands under Lucknow Pact. Congress accepted League's position on separate electorates

CHAP 3 FACTORS IN GROWTH OF MODERN NATIONALISM

FACTORS IN GROWTH OF MODERN "NATIONALISM

Understanding of contradictions in Indian and colonial interests

Political, administrative and economic unification of the country.

Western thought and education

Role of press and literature

Rediscovery of India's past-historical researches

Rise of middle class intelligentsia

Impact of contemporary movements worldwide

Reactionary policies and racial arrogance of rulers

POLITICAL ASSOCIATIONS BEFORE INDIAN NATIONAL' CONGRESS

1836—Bangabhasha Prakasika Sabha

Zamindari Association or Landholders' Society

1843—Bengal British India Society

1851—British Indian Association

1866—East India Association

1875—Indian League

1876—Indian Association of Calcutta

1867—Poona Sarvajanik Sabha

1885—Bombay Presidency Association

1884—Madras Mahajan Sabha

EARLY NATIONALIST METHODOLOGYConstitutional agitation within four walls
of law

Create public opinion in India and campaign for support to Indian
demands in England

Political education of people

Political connections with Britain in India's interests at that stage

Time not ripe for direct challenge to colonial rule

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MODERATE NATIONALISTS

Economic critique of British imperialism

Constitutional reforms and propaganda in legislature

Campaign for general administrative reforms

Defence of civil rights.

CHAPTER 4 INM 1905-1907

WHY MILITANT NATIONALISM GREW
1. Realisation that the true nature of British rule was exploitative, and
that the Government, instead of conceding more, was taking away even
what existed.

2. Growth of self-confidence and self-respect.

3. Impact of growth of education—increase in awareness and unemployment.

4. International influences and events which demolished the myth of
white/European supremacy.

These included —
emergence of Japan—an Asian country
—as an industrial power
— Abyssinia's (Ethiopia) victory over Italy.
— Boer Wars (1899-1902) in which the British faced reverses.
— Japan's victory over Russia (1905).
— nationalist movements worldwide.

5. Reaction to increasing westemisation.

6. Dissatisfaction with the achievements of Moderates.

7. Reactionary policies of Curzon such as the Calcutta Corporation Act
(1899), the Official Secrets Act (1904),
the Indian Universities Act (1904) and
partition of Bengal (1905).

8. Existence of a militant school of thought.

9. Emergence of a trained leadership.


THE EXTREMIST IDEOLOGY
 Hatred for foreign rule

 Belief in the capacity of masses

 Swarajya as goal

 Advocacy of direct political action and self-sacrifice.

THE SWADESHI AND BOYCOTT MOVEMENT Began as a reaction to
partition of Bengal which became known in 1903, was formally
announced in July 1905 and came into force in October 1905.

The motive behind partition was to weaken Bengal which was
the nerve centre of Indian nationalist activity;

the official reason given for the partition was that Bengal had
become too big to administer

—which was true but only to some extent.

Moderate-led anti-partition movement (1903-05) was under Surendranath

Banerjee, K.K: Mitre, Prithwishchandra Ray.

Methods included public meetings, petitions, memoranda, propaganda through

newspapers and pamphlets.

National Movement-1905-1918 111

The movement under Extremists (1905-08) was led by Tilak, Bipin Chandra
Pal, Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghosh.

Methods included boycott of foreign cloth and other goods, public meetings and

processions, forming corps of volunteers or samitis, use of traditional

popular festivals and metes  for propaganda,

emphasis on self-reliance or atma shakti,

launching programme of swadeshi or national education,

swadeshi or indigenous enterprises,

initiating new trends in Indian painting, songs, poetry,

pioneering research in science and later
calling for boycott of schools, colleges, councils, government service, etc.

Extremists took over because of the failure of the Moderates to achieve
positive results, divisive tactics of Governments of both Bengals,
severe government repression.


Extent of mass participation—students, women, certain sections of
zamindari, some lower middle and middle classes in towns and cities

participated for the first time while the Muslims generally kept away.
Annulment of Partition mainly to curb the 'menace' of revolutionary
terrorism.

Why Swadeshi Movement fizzled out by 1908?

Severe government repression.

Lack of effective organisation and a disciplined focus.

With arrest, deportation of all leaders, the movement left leaderless.
Split in nationalist ranks.

Narrow social base.

Achievements "A leap forward" because hitherto untouched sections
participated, major trends of later movement emerged;

richness of the movement extended to culture, science and literature; people

educated in bolder form of politics; colonial hegemony undermined.

CHAPTER 2 RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS

Rising :tide of nationalism and democracy during the late 19th century.

SOCIAL BASE

Emerging middle class and western-educated intellectuals.

IDEOLOGICAL BASE
Rationalism, religious universalism, humanism, secularism.

SOCIAL REFORM COMPONENTS
Betterment of Position of Women

Degraded position due to Purdah system Early marriage Lack of education

Unequal rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance

Polygamy

Female infanticide

Restrictions on widow remarriage

Sati

Major Contributors to Reforms

Social reform movements,

freedom struggle,

movements led by enlightened women,

free India's Constitution.

Legislative Measures for Women

Bengal Regulation (1829) banning sati

Bengal Regulations (1795, 1804)—declaring infanticide illegal.

Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856.

Age of Consent Act, 1891

Sarda Act, 1930

Special Marriage Act, 1954

Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

Hindu Succession Act, 1956

Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act Maternity Benefits Act, 1961

Equal Remuneration Act, 1976

Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Act, 1978

Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act in Women and Girls,
1956 (amended in 1986)


Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 (amended in 1986)

STRUGGLE AGAINST CASTE-BASED EXPLOITATION

Factors Undermining Caste Rigidities

Forces unleashed by colonial administration

Social reform movements

National movement

Gandhi's campaign against untouchability

Stirrings among lower castes due to better education and employment

Free India's Constitution

REFORM MOVEMENTS: AMONG HINDUS Bengal Raja Ram-mohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

Debendranath Tagore and Tattvabodhini Sabha

Keshub Chandra Sen and Brahmo Samaj of India Prarthana Samaj

Derozio and Young Bengal Movement Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Western

India Bal Shastri Jambekar Students' Literary and Scientific Societies
Pararnhansa Mandalis

Jyotiba Phule and Satyashodhak Samaj Gopalhari Deshmukh Lokahitawadi'

Gopal Ganesh Agarkar Servants of India Society Southern India Sri

Narayana Dharma Paripalana Movement Vokkaliga Sangha Justice Movement

Self-respect Movement Temple Entry Movement All India

Ramakrishna Movement and Vivekananda

Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj

Theosophical Movement

• AMONG MUSLIMS
Wahabi/Walliullah Movement Ahmadiya Movement Syed Ahmed Khan and

Aligarh Movement Deoband Movement

AMONG PARSIS

Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha

AMONG SIKHS

Singh Sabha Movement Akali Movement

POSITIVE CONTRIBUTIONS

Liberation of individual from conformity out of fear psychosis.
Worship made a more personal affair Cultural roots to the middle classes—thus
mitigating the sense of humiliation;
much needed self-respect gained Fostered secular outlook Encouraged social climate for modernisation Ended India's cultural, intellectual isolation from rest of the world

Evolution of national consciousness
NEGATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS

Narrow social base Indirectly encouraged mysticism Overemphasis on
religious, philosophical aspects of culture while underemphasising
secular and moral aspects Hindus confined their praise to ancient Indian
history and Muslims to medieval history—created a notion of two separate
peoples and increased communal consciousness Historical process of
evolution of composite culture arrested to some extent.

INM RIN 1857 CHAP 1

Revolt—

a product of character and policies of colonial rule.
Economic causes—

Heavy taxation under new revenue settlement,
Summary evictions,

Discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products,

Destruction of traditional handicrafts industry, and

Absence of concomitant industrialisation on modern lines that hit
peasants, artisans and small zamindars.

Political causes—
Greedy policy of aggrandisement,

Absentee sovereigntyship character of British rule,

British interference in socio-religious affairs of Indian public.

Military causes—
Discontent among sepoys for economic,

Psychological and religious reasons,

Coupled with a long history of revolts.

CENTRES OF REVOLT AND LEADERS

Delhi - General Khan Kanpur - Nana Saheb Lucknow -

Begum Hazrat Mahal Bareilly - Khan Bahadur Bihar -

Kunwar Singh Faizabad - Maulvi Ahmadullah Jhansi - Rani Laxmibai

THE BRITISH RESISTANCE
Delhi -- John Nicholson,
Kanpur Lucknow
Jhansi Benaras
- Lieutenant Willoughby,
Lieutenant Hudson - Sir Hugh Wheeler, Sir Colin Campbell - Henry

Lawrence, Brigadier Inglis,

Henry Havelock, James Outram, Sir Colin Campbell - Sir Hugh Rose -

Colonel James Neill


CAUSES OF FAILURE

Limited territorial and social base.

Crucial support of certain sections of Indian public to British authorities.

CAUSES OF FAILURE

Limited territorial and social base.

Crucial support of certain sections of Indian public to British authorities.