Page 11
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT – 1920-22
Reasons:
The Rowlatt Act
Demand for Swaraj
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre – clean chit by Hunter Commission
Montagu – Chelmsford Reforms
Ill-treatment of the Caliph of Turkey (spiritual head of Muslims) post WWI
Features:
Khilafat Leaders joined Gandhi (leading the movement)
Non – Cooperation included:
o Surrender of titles and honors
o Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges
o Law courts, foreign cloth
o Extended to resignation from government services
o Mass civil disobedience including non-payment of taxes
o National Schools and Colleges were to be setup
o Panchayats were to be setup to settle disputes
o Khadi was encouraged
o Looting of liquor shops
o Promotion to hindu-muslim unity
Women participation. Wives of Gandhi, CR Das, Motilal Nehru all participated
Boycotts in the movement:
Education – 90,000 students left schools and colleges and joined National Schools
Lawyers – Many leading lawyers like C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel etc gave up lucrative practices
Foreign Cloth – lighting of foreign cloth. Imports reduced by half within a year
Withdrawal of Movement
Chauri Chaurah incident, where an agitated mob burnt a police station at Chauri Chaura with 22 policemen inside it.
Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, CR Das , Subhash Chandra Bose were all against the withdrawal
Gandhi’s critics fail to understand that mass movements have an inherent tendency to stagnate after reaching a certain height. This is the capacity of the masses to withstand suppression, endure sufferings and make sacrifices is not unlimited
Page 12
Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement
Demonstrated that the INM had the backing of the masses and that the “poor dumb millions” of India had the capacity to take part in modern nationalist politics
All sections of Indian Society participated – peasants, workers, artisans, shopkeepers, traders, professionals, white collar employees etc
The charge of representing a microscopic minority made by Viceroy Dufferin could never again be hurled at INC
Muslim participation gave the movement its true mass character, something later movements were never able to achieve again.
Page 13
PEASANT MOVEMENTS – 1920s
The peasants’ movements on the 19th century were standalone in nature but in 20th century the movements were deeply influenced and in turn had a marked impact on the Indian struggle for national freedom. Example – The Kisan Sabha and Ekta movement in Awadh UP, the Mappila rebellion in Malabar and Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat
Bardoli Satyagraha
Bardoli (Gujarat) had been selected as the place where Gandhi would launch CDM in 1922. But Chauri Chaura happened and the campaign never took off.
Reasons:
Increased land revenue by the government
Lack of concern for reduction in the increased amount
Features:
Peasants decided to withhold the entire revenue amount until the government sets up a tribunal to look into the mater.
Role of Vallabhbhai Patel
A veteran of Kheda Satyagraha, Nagpur Flag Satyagraha Sardar Patel was ideally suited to lead the movement.
He emerged as leader in Gujarat second only to Gandhi
A brilliant orator and mass mobilizer
He has astute organizing skills, divided the Bardoli Taluq into cadres under experienced leaders, sub-ordinates and volunteers, many of them students formed the army of the movement
He setup the Bardoli Patrika containing the reports of the movement, speeches of the leaders and pictures of the repressive measures of the government. This kept the masses in touch and motivated continuously
He also setup an intelligence wing to find out the indecisive peasants.
He was a hardliner and those who showed signs of weakness were brought to line by means of social pressure and boycott
He used lower caste as an advantage – those who opposed would be denied essential services from sweepers, barbers, washermen etc.
Impact:
Government loyalists began to desert it
Page 14
Movement spread to Bombay Presidency where the textile workers threatened to go on strike
Lord Irwin (~1928) had to force an inquiry which finally decided to reduce the land revenue increment to just 6%.
Mahatma Gandhi – “The Bardoli Struggle is not a struggle for the direct attainment of Swaraj. Every such awakening, every such effort as that of Bardoli will bring Swaraj nearer”
Page 15
INDIAN WORKING CLASS
The modern worker made his appearance in India in the second half of 19th century with the slow beginnings of modern industry and the growth of utilities like Railways, Post and Telegraph services. The process of exploited groups of workers in various parts of India emerging as an organized, self-conscious an all India class is critically linked with the growth of Indian National Movement and the process of Indian ‘Nation in the Making’ because the notion of Indian working class could not exist before the notion of Indian people had begun to take root.
Attitude of Early Moderates (1870-1900)
Early Moderates paid little attention to the question of workers despite their wretched conditions
They confined themselves to the questions in which ‘entire nation had a direct participation’ and hence must leave out social reforms and class based issues.
Moderates infact did not support labor movements, for they wanted the infant Indian Industry to grow at faster rate and such early regulations would have hindered its growth
But, they gave full support to labors employed in British owned industries for the same reason
Swadeshi Movement – Game Changer in Labor Movement
Four prominent leaders dedicated themselves to labor struggles – Ashwinicoomar Banerjee most prominent amongst them.
The first tentative attempts to form All-India Unions were also made at this time
Most important feature of labor movement in Swadeshi was a shift from standalone struggles and agitations purely on economic questions to the involvement of workers with Nationalist Movement on the whole
Eg. In TN, strikes were held in foreign owned cloth mill which would to the demise of foreign mills
1920-1930
Most Important – All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed in 1920. (Tilak played a major role)
Its first president Lala Lajpat Rai laid emphasis on organized labor as an antidote to capitalism
Throughout Rowlatt Satyagraha, NCM and Khilafat Movements, worker class participated actively by calling out strikes in Railways works
Workers movement was now streamlined with the Nationalist movement
Page 16
1930-onwards
Emergence of powerful Left Bloc in the National Movement
Various workers and peasant parties (WPP) were formed
Post Russian Revolution, Communism had a strong bearing on Workers Movement
Emergence of pro-communist leaders like Nehru and Bose
Active role of AITUC – boycotted the Simon Commission
In late 1920s onwards, Communist then reversed their policy of aligning with the National Movement as their ideologies begin to differ substantially
Weak participation in CDM
Re-aligned with Congress in 1934
1939-onwards
Workers Movement by now had a Communist overtone
Supported Allied Powers against Germany and Italy for attacking Soviet Union
Communist Party dissociated itself from QIM of Gandhi
Despite the Communist indifference, worker participation was still there
1945-47
Tremendous resurgence is ‘working class’ (not Communist class) activities in post war political upsurge
Bombay and Calcutta dock workers refused to load ships to show solidarity during the INA trial issue.
Most spectacular is the strike by Bombay workers in solidarity with Royal Navy Mutiny in 1946
Last years of colonial rules saw unprecedented strike till the British indeed leave India
Page 17
YEARS OF STAGNATION – SWARAJISTS, NO CHANGERS AND GANDHI
Withdrawal of NCM in 1922 and arrest of Gandhi resulted in spread of disintegration, disorganization and demoralization in Nationalist Leaders.
Emergence of Swarajists
New ideology suggested by Nehru Sr. and CR Das – participation in legislative councils to expose the “sham parliaments”
Opposed by Moderates (Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C Rajagopalachari)
Nehru Sr. and CR Das quit Congress and setup the Swaraj Party in 1923
Both respected lawyers and former moderates
Gandhi opposed council participation
Swarajists said work in councils is necessary to fill the political void
No-changers opposed council entry mainly on the ground that parliamentary work would lead to neglect of constructive and other work in the masses
But both parties had learnt the lesson from Congress split of 1907
In September 1923, Congress allowed its members to contest election
Although, firmly against council entry, Gandhi praised Swarajists for their courageous and uncompromising manner and trusted them to not become a limb of imperial admin
Impact of Swarajists upon Council Entry
Greatest achievement = filing the political void when INM was recuperating. They successfully exposed the hollowness of 1919 Reform Act of 1919 and showed people that they were being ruled by ‘lawless laws’
The legislatures reformed in 1919 lacked any real power; they had no control over the executive. Viceroy could certify any legislation including budgetary grants
Swarajists took up 3 majors problems:
o Self-government
o Civil liberties – repeal of repressive laws
o Development of indigenous industries
Put forward demands like a new constitution for India which would transfer real powers to India
They exposed the Parliamentary work when their proposals were repeatedly rejected
People were thrilled every time the all-powerful foreign bureaucracy was humbled
Page 18
Weakness
Soon the limits to obstructionist politics were reached
There was no way of going further inside the legislatures and escalating confrontation
Parliamentary corruption crept in
Failed to rally the cause of tenants and minorities, partly because they lacked real power and also because their prime intentions were only obstruction of work
Hence, 1926 Congress withdrew from Legislatures
Public Safety Bill 1928
Opposed by Swarajists (Pro-Communists)
The bill was introduced to check spread of communism and socialism in India
It intended to throw out individuals who were involved in spreading communism
Rise of Communalism
Side effect of socio-religious movement like the Wahabi movement amongst Muslims and Shudhi Movement among Hindus
Expanding middle class – increased competition for government jobs
Concessionist policies by the British. Eg Separate Electorate for Muslims
Started as Liberal Communalism (two religious communities have different interest) and took shape of Extremist Communalism (those different interests are incompatible)
Domination of Congress by Extreme Hindu Nationalists allegedly undermined the Minority concerns
NON-COOPERATION MOVEMENT – 1920-22
Reasons:
The Rowlatt Act
Demand for Swaraj
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre – clean chit by Hunter Commission
Montagu – Chelmsford Reforms
Ill-treatment of the Caliph of Turkey (spiritual head of Muslims) post WWI
Features:
Khilafat Leaders joined Gandhi (leading the movement)
Non – Cooperation included:
o Surrender of titles and honors
o Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges
o Law courts, foreign cloth
o Extended to resignation from government services
o Mass civil disobedience including non-payment of taxes
o National Schools and Colleges were to be setup
o Panchayats were to be setup to settle disputes
o Khadi was encouraged
o Looting of liquor shops
o Promotion to hindu-muslim unity
Women participation. Wives of Gandhi, CR Das, Motilal Nehru all participated
Boycotts in the movement:
Education – 90,000 students left schools and colleges and joined National Schools
Lawyers – Many leading lawyers like C.R. Das , Motilal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel etc gave up lucrative practices
Foreign Cloth – lighting of foreign cloth. Imports reduced by half within a year
Withdrawal of Movement
Chauri Chaurah incident, where an agitated mob burnt a police station at Chauri Chaura with 22 policemen inside it.
Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, CR Das , Subhash Chandra Bose were all against the withdrawal
Gandhi’s critics fail to understand that mass movements have an inherent tendency to stagnate after reaching a certain height. This is the capacity of the masses to withstand suppression, endure sufferings and make sacrifices is not unlimited
Page 12
Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement
Demonstrated that the INM had the backing of the masses and that the “poor dumb millions” of India had the capacity to take part in modern nationalist politics
All sections of Indian Society participated – peasants, workers, artisans, shopkeepers, traders, professionals, white collar employees etc
The charge of representing a microscopic minority made by Viceroy Dufferin could never again be hurled at INC
Muslim participation gave the movement its true mass character, something later movements were never able to achieve again.
Page 13
PEASANT MOVEMENTS – 1920s
The peasants’ movements on the 19th century were standalone in nature but in 20th century the movements were deeply influenced and in turn had a marked impact on the Indian struggle for national freedom. Example – The Kisan Sabha and Ekta movement in Awadh UP, the Mappila rebellion in Malabar and Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat
Bardoli Satyagraha
Bardoli (Gujarat) had been selected as the place where Gandhi would launch CDM in 1922. But Chauri Chaura happened and the campaign never took off.
Reasons:
Increased land revenue by the government
Lack of concern for reduction in the increased amount
Features:
Peasants decided to withhold the entire revenue amount until the government sets up a tribunal to look into the mater.
Role of Vallabhbhai Patel
A veteran of Kheda Satyagraha, Nagpur Flag Satyagraha Sardar Patel was ideally suited to lead the movement.
He emerged as leader in Gujarat second only to Gandhi
A brilliant orator and mass mobilizer
He has astute organizing skills, divided the Bardoli Taluq into cadres under experienced leaders, sub-ordinates and volunteers, many of them students formed the army of the movement
He setup the Bardoli Patrika containing the reports of the movement, speeches of the leaders and pictures of the repressive measures of the government. This kept the masses in touch and motivated continuously
He also setup an intelligence wing to find out the indecisive peasants.
He was a hardliner and those who showed signs of weakness were brought to line by means of social pressure and boycott
He used lower caste as an advantage – those who opposed would be denied essential services from sweepers, barbers, washermen etc.
Impact:
Government loyalists began to desert it
Page 14
Movement spread to Bombay Presidency where the textile workers threatened to go on strike
Lord Irwin (~1928) had to force an inquiry which finally decided to reduce the land revenue increment to just 6%.
Mahatma Gandhi – “The Bardoli Struggle is not a struggle for the direct attainment of Swaraj. Every such awakening, every such effort as that of Bardoli will bring Swaraj nearer”
Page 15
INDIAN WORKING CLASS
The modern worker made his appearance in India in the second half of 19th century with the slow beginnings of modern industry and the growth of utilities like Railways, Post and Telegraph services. The process of exploited groups of workers in various parts of India emerging as an organized, self-conscious an all India class is critically linked with the growth of Indian National Movement and the process of Indian ‘Nation in the Making’ because the notion of Indian working class could not exist before the notion of Indian people had begun to take root.
Attitude of Early Moderates (1870-1900)
Early Moderates paid little attention to the question of workers despite their wretched conditions
They confined themselves to the questions in which ‘entire nation had a direct participation’ and hence must leave out social reforms and class based issues.
Moderates infact did not support labor movements, for they wanted the infant Indian Industry to grow at faster rate and such early regulations would have hindered its growth
But, they gave full support to labors employed in British owned industries for the same reason
Swadeshi Movement – Game Changer in Labor Movement
Four prominent leaders dedicated themselves to labor struggles – Ashwinicoomar Banerjee most prominent amongst them.
The first tentative attempts to form All-India Unions were also made at this time
Most important feature of labor movement in Swadeshi was a shift from standalone struggles and agitations purely on economic questions to the involvement of workers with Nationalist Movement on the whole
Eg. In TN, strikes were held in foreign owned cloth mill which would to the demise of foreign mills
1920-1930
Most Important – All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed in 1920. (Tilak played a major role)
Its first president Lala Lajpat Rai laid emphasis on organized labor as an antidote to capitalism
Throughout Rowlatt Satyagraha, NCM and Khilafat Movements, worker class participated actively by calling out strikes in Railways works
Workers movement was now streamlined with the Nationalist movement
Page 16
1930-onwards
Emergence of powerful Left Bloc in the National Movement
Various workers and peasant parties (WPP) were formed
Post Russian Revolution, Communism had a strong bearing on Workers Movement
Emergence of pro-communist leaders like Nehru and Bose
Active role of AITUC – boycotted the Simon Commission
In late 1920s onwards, Communist then reversed their policy of aligning with the National Movement as their ideologies begin to differ substantially
Weak participation in CDM
Re-aligned with Congress in 1934
1939-onwards
Workers Movement by now had a Communist overtone
Supported Allied Powers against Germany and Italy for attacking Soviet Union
Communist Party dissociated itself from QIM of Gandhi
Despite the Communist indifference, worker participation was still there
1945-47
Tremendous resurgence is ‘working class’ (not Communist class) activities in post war political upsurge
Bombay and Calcutta dock workers refused to load ships to show solidarity during the INA trial issue.
Most spectacular is the strike by Bombay workers in solidarity with Royal Navy Mutiny in 1946
Last years of colonial rules saw unprecedented strike till the British indeed leave India
Page 17
YEARS OF STAGNATION – SWARAJISTS, NO CHANGERS AND GANDHI
Withdrawal of NCM in 1922 and arrest of Gandhi resulted in spread of disintegration, disorganization and demoralization in Nationalist Leaders.
Emergence of Swarajists
New ideology suggested by Nehru Sr. and CR Das – participation in legislative councils to expose the “sham parliaments”
Opposed by Moderates (Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C Rajagopalachari)
Nehru Sr. and CR Das quit Congress and setup the Swaraj Party in 1923
Both respected lawyers and former moderates
Gandhi opposed council participation
Swarajists said work in councils is necessary to fill the political void
No-changers opposed council entry mainly on the ground that parliamentary work would lead to neglect of constructive and other work in the masses
But both parties had learnt the lesson from Congress split of 1907
In September 1923, Congress allowed its members to contest election
Although, firmly against council entry, Gandhi praised Swarajists for their courageous and uncompromising manner and trusted them to not become a limb of imperial admin
Impact of Swarajists upon Council Entry
Greatest achievement = filing the political void when INM was recuperating. They successfully exposed the hollowness of 1919 Reform Act of 1919 and showed people that they were being ruled by ‘lawless laws’
The legislatures reformed in 1919 lacked any real power; they had no control over the executive. Viceroy could certify any legislation including budgetary grants
Swarajists took up 3 majors problems:
o Self-government
o Civil liberties – repeal of repressive laws
o Development of indigenous industries
Put forward demands like a new constitution for India which would transfer real powers to India
They exposed the Parliamentary work when their proposals were repeatedly rejected
People were thrilled every time the all-powerful foreign bureaucracy was humbled
Page 18
Weakness
Soon the limits to obstructionist politics were reached
There was no way of going further inside the legislatures and escalating confrontation
Parliamentary corruption crept in
Failed to rally the cause of tenants and minorities, partly because they lacked real power and also because their prime intentions were only obstruction of work
Hence, 1926 Congress withdrew from Legislatures
Public Safety Bill 1928
Opposed by Swarajists (Pro-Communists)
The bill was introduced to check spread of communism and socialism in India
It intended to throw out individuals who were involved in spreading communism
Rise of Communalism
Side effect of socio-religious movement like the Wahabi movement amongst Muslims and Shudhi Movement among Hindus
Expanding middle class – increased competition for government jobs
Concessionist policies by the British. Eg Separate Electorate for Muslims
Started as Liberal Communalism (two religious communities have different interest) and took shape of Extremist Communalism (those different interests are incompatible)
Domination of Congress by Extreme Hindu Nationalists allegedly undermined the Minority concerns
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