History-SET-3--Part-3-P31-39

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Chandragupta II: (380 – 415 AD)
Figure - Coin of the Gupta king Chandragupta II
 He adopted the title of Vikramaditya. 1st Ujjain ruler to do so
 He extended the limits of his empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
 By marrying his daughter (prabhavati) to Vakataka prince, he exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India.
 This move helped him later to conquer western malwa and Gujrat from Shakas.
 He issued Silver coins. He was the first Gupta king to do so.
 He made Ujjain his second Capital.
 He was a great patron of Art and literature. It is believed that he had Navratnas in his court. It is a matter of debate whether Aryabhatta and Kalidasa were in his court or not.
 Chandragupta’s inscription has been found in Udaigiri and Khandgiri.

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Udaigiri caves of Odisha
Fa hien: the first Chinese pilgrim came to India during 399 – 412 AD. i.e. during Chandragupta II reign.
Figure - Fa Hien

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 He came through land and returned through sea route via Srilanka.
 He came to collect the Holy Buddhist texts.
 He visited several important Buddhist sites and cities, including Patliputra and praised the beauty of the throne of Chandragupta Maurya.
 He wrote about different Buddhist sects in India.
 He wrote about Indian society, there were things that he praised like Cultural diversity and certain things that he criticized like untouchability.
 He did not write about any king of India or prevalent political conditions.
 However, he did write about the moral character of Indians which he thought was good.
Kumaragupta
 His inscription has been found from several of UP and MP like Mathura and Mandsor.
 During his period, the Huns (Central Asian tribe) made their first attack in India.
 During his period the famous Nalanda Buddhist monastery and University was built. He donated one village to it.
(Note: In those days, apart from religious studies. Pupils were taught life sciences and other crafts.)
Skandgupta
 His famous inscription has been found in Junagarh.
 This inscription informs us of the victory of Skandgupta over the Huns.
Gupta Administration:
 Gupta kings adapted pompous titles such as paramesvara, maharajadhiraja and paramabhattaraka. This signifies that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire.
 King was considered as divine. In ancient time, this theory was accepted in China and Persia as well. Samudragupta claimed he was the avatar of Vishnu on earth.
 Kingship was hereditary.
 There was no fixed rule for succession. (primogeniture not fixed)
 King was an absolute monarch.
 Largest number of gold coins is found from this period.
 The violators of guild were punished by fine or excommunication.

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Army
 The numerical strength - unknown.
 A standing army was maintained. Feudatories occasionally supplemented the forces.
 Cavalry came to the forefront.
 Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.
Taxation system
 Land taxation keep on increasing
 Taxation on trade and commerce decreased
 Taxation rate – ¼ to 1/6 of produce.
 Local people had to feed army when it passes through the countryside
 Villagers were subjected to forced labour called vishti for serving the royal army and officials.
Judicial system
 More developed than earlier times
 Several law books compiled
 1st time demarcation of criminal and civil laws
 Criminal law – theft and adultery
 Civil law – disputes regarding various types of property
 Elaborate laws laid down about inheritance
 Like earlier time many laws continued to be based on differences in varnas.
 It was the duty of the king to uphold the law.
 The king tried cases with the help of Brahmana priests.
 During this period autonomous trading bodies called ‘guilds’ were active.
 Rules were made by the guilds for the member of the guilds like fixing the price, quality of goods and obligations of the members. Guilds used to interfere in some personal issues as well.
 Guilds of artisans, merchants and others - governed by their own laws. Seals from Vaisali and from Bhita near Allahabad ludicate that these guilds flourished exceedingly well in Gupta times.
Bureaucracy
 The ministers could hold more than one post unlike the Mauryan administration.
 The post of some ministers and officers was also hereditary.

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 The officers were also paid in land. This was the first time in history when officers were paid in the form of land. This led to the rise of feudalism. (Note: Satavahanas granted land to priests, not officers.)
 The Brahmins got land grants with power to punish the people to maintain law and order. These villages were called Agrahara village or Brahmandeya Village.
 The Guptas as compared to Mauryas had small size bureaucracy and the administration was more central
Provincial and Local administration
 The empire was divided as –
 Divisions (bhuktis) ? districts (vishayas) ? vithis ? villages.
 Order of their officers –
 Uparika (for bhuktis)? Vishayapati (for Vaisayas)
Gupta rulers did not require as many officials as the Mauryan did because –
 Since much of the imperial administration was managed by feudatories and beneficiaries
 State did not take part in economic activities on any big scale
 Guilds participation in administration
Economy
 Source – Fa Hien
 According to him empire had lot of cities and rich people who give donations to Buddhism
 Gold coins – largest in no.
o Not pure as kushanas
o Served to pay officers, meet the need of sale and purchase of lands
 Silver coins – issued after the conquest of Gujrat for local exchange
 Copper coins – very few
 Decline in long distance foreign trade.
 Eastern Roman empire learnt from the Chinese the art of growing Silk. This adversely affected the export trade of India.
 Demand for Indian silk abroad had slackened.
 Guild of silk weavers left their original home in Gujrat and migrated to Mandasor and took to other professions.

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Social Developments
 Land grants to the Brahmanas on a large scale mean that the Brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times.
Caste System
 The castes proliferated into numerous sub castes.
 Professions were determined by caste though not very rigidly.
 For example –
 Brahmans - followed trade, architecture and service as professions. They had even become kings.
 Vaishyas - The Gupta emperors were Vaishyas.
 Kshatriyas – they followed commercial and industrial vocations.
 Suhdras - There were many sub-castes among the Vaishyas and Sudras than among the higher castes. Sudras also could become traders and agriculturists like the Vaishyas.
 Untouchables – lived outside the main settlements. They stroked a piece of wood while entering the city so that men might know of their coming and they could be avoided. They were engaged in hunting, fishery, scavenging and similar professions.
Family System
 Joint family system was prevalent in the Hindu society.
 Partitions or nuclear family in the lifetime of the father was not approved.
 Ownership of property was vested in the father but the rights of sons and brothers to the property were also recognized.
 Adoption was not very much approved.
 The head of the family governed the family unit.
 Patriarchal system - The male members dominated the family and society.
Position of Women under Gupta Empire
 Though women were subordinate to men in society, yet their position was no less significant.
 Their position improved than earlier periods.
 She was idealized in literature.
 They were given education but they could not recite the Vedic mantras.
 Pre-puberty or child marriages were common.
 Purdah had begun among the higher castes.

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 Widow remarriage was allowed sometimes.
 Sati example 1st – 510 AD
 Ideally woman was regarded as Shakti, the energizing principle. A woman was considered as Saraswati and Goddess Kali, creator and destroyer.
 They not only participated in public life but there is also reference to women teachers.
 Permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They could also worship a new god called Krishna
 Upper caste women were treated as property by their husbands.
o They were completely depended on husband for livelihood and it was expected that they would follow her husband to next world.
 Lacked proprietary rights.
Buddhism and Bhagvatism
 No longer received royal patronage.
 According to Fa Hien Buddhism flourished but in reality it was not so important in the Gupta period as it was in the days of Asoka and Kanishka.
 Instead Buddhism had been replaced by Bhagvatism
 2 gods who commanded were - Vishnu and Siva.
 Vishnu emerged as the god of devotion, and represented as the saviour of the varna system.
 Vishnupuran – compilation of legends about Vishnu
 Vishnusmriti – a law book was also name after this god.
 4th century AD - Bhagavadgita, philosophical text, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna.
 Siva - the god of destruction was also worshipped.
 Idol Worship – became a common feature from this period.
 The Gupta kings followed a policy of tolerance towards the different religious sects.

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Literature:
Click here for higher resolution
Gupta age was a golden period of literature. Gupta literature can be broadly classified into
 Religious literature
 Secular literature
Religious Literature:
Puranas:
 It literally means the ‘Past’.
 There are 18 puranas written in ancient period some before Guptas, some during Guptas and some post Guptas.

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 They are written in Chaste Sanskrit and are tales of Gods and Goddesses.
Some of the important Puranas are:
 Adi purana
 Agni Purana
 Matsya Purana
 Bhagwati Purana
 Bhavisya Purana
 Shiv Purana
 Through these books we get the chronology of the ancient rulers/dynasties, including that of ‘Mahajanapadas’.
 These literatures are a good source to know the contemporary society and culture and to understand different social institutions like marriage.
 The books are written in future tense.
 The modern Hindus treat them as holy books whereas reformers like Raja Rammohun Roy and Dayanand Saraswati condemned the Puranas and said that many social evils of Hindu society have their roots in Puranas. Dayanand Saraswati said, ‘Go back to the Vedas’.
Smritis:
 Literally it means ‘Memory’.
 These are the law books written in Gupta and pre- Gupta period.
 Manu Smriti – the oldest Smriti written during post Mauryan period. It is the most comprehensive law book of the ancient time.
 Narada Smriti – it gives a list of various privileges of Brahmans.
 These smritis made or fixed laws for individual and society based on Varna system or caste heritage.
 In general most important rights were reserved for the upper caste male and most duties especially physical duties were assigned to people of lower Varnas and females of all Varnas.
 Most smritis assigned legalized property rights only to the male members of the family. Some smriti writers gave ‘Stree dhan’ a right of female but it was given only at the time of marriage and in the form of cash and jewelry.
 In 18th C the British Government codified some laws of Manusmriti under the title, ‘ A code of Gentoo laws’. It was drafted in 1776.

History-SET-3--Part-3 -Gupta Pg 21-30

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Gandhara Art Features Mathura Gandhara Amravati Time period 2nd C. BC 1st C. BC 1st C. BC Flourished in Mathura region North western part of Indian subcontinent Valley of Krishna and Godavari Prominent places Mathura and Jamalpur village Taxila, Bimaran, Jalabad and Hada Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala and Vengi. Buddhist images adopted from Mathura’s artists 1st to make the images of Buddha Adopted from Mathura Adopted from Mathura Patronization by Initially – local rulers but later by Shakas and Kushanas Shakas and Kushanas Vakatakas and Ikshavakus Influenced by Initially indigenous but after the Shakas and Kushanas patronization, influence of Greeko-Roman Greeko-Roman and so also known as Greeko Roman, Indo-Roman and Greeko Buddhist school of art. No one; Indigenous from beginning to end. Type of Stone used White spotted Red sandstone Blue-Grey Stone White marble Religious or Secular images Both Only religious Both

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Emphasis or focus on Facial expression  Clean shave and head  Abhaymudra and Dharmachakraparivartana Mudra Physical beauty  Muscular body  Transparent cloth  Curly hairs Physical beauty  Expression through postures  Erotic images Continuation Continued till early Medieval age Destroyed by Huna invasions in 5th century AD Got transformed into Pallava and Chola architecture
Buddhist Sangha
Buddhist Sangha was the Buddhist religious order in which Buddhist monks had to live in a certain manner.
Rules for entering the Sangha:
 Age should be at least 15 years.
 No criminal charges should be pending. If a person was convicted and has served the term than he is allowed.
 Person should not be under debt.
 Must not be suffering from a communicable disease.
Code of Conduct:
 Meal was served only once a day.
 Not to sleep on comfortable bed.
 Not to wear any ornaments
 Not to drink
 Not to indulge in any corrupt practices
 Not to have any relationship with the opposite sex
 Dress code: simple unstitched clothes
 Had to ask for bhiksha(begging) from nearby villages. It was believed that asking for bhiksha killed the ego.
Significance of the code of Conduct:

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 To establish a disciplined order
 It helped in resolving the conflicts of the contemporary society like differences between rich and poor, and powerful and weak.
 It is believed, that possibly Buddha wanted to replicate the same in the society.
However, later, the money started pouring in, in the Sangh and monks got inclined towards the materialistic pleasures. From this point the pure Buddhism started decaying.
Decline of Buddhism:
 By early 12th century A.D. it became extinct.
Several reasons can be attributed to the decline of Buddhism like:
 It lost its own identity: gradually the religion became more ritualistic and also started practicing the rituals of Brahmanical and Vedic religion.
 Reforms by Brahmana in their religion.
 Monks took Sanskrit language.
 From the first century AD. they practiced idol worship on a large scale and received numerous offerings from devotees.
 Buddhist monasteries - dominated by ease-loving people and became centers of corrupt practices
 Invasion of monasteries by Turkish because of monastries’ riches.
 Sangh lost way: There were cracks in the Sangh, there was no more discipline.
 Revival of Brahmanism: Brahmanical religion was revived during Gupta Period and the new Religion adopted many practices of Buddhism like vegetarianism etc.
 Lack of Patronage: Palas were the last rulers which provided patronage to Buddhist monasteries. Once the Brahmanical religion was revived, Buddhism lost its grip. Also many kings suppressed them with force. In 7th Century, a Shaivite King ‘Shashank’ chopped the Bodhgaya Pipal tree.

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GUPTA PERIOD
Background
 Emerged over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushans and Satavahanas.
 Gupta empire may have been of vaisya origin.
 It was not as large as the Maurya empire but it kept north India politically united for more than a century, from AD 335 to 455.
 UP was the center point of Gupta empire.
 The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushans in Uttar Pradesh
 Their basic strength was because of horses.
 The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages like –
o Fertile land of MP, Bihar and UP
o Iron ores
o Proximity to silk trade route and Byzantine empire (Roman empire)
 Guptas set up their rule over –
o Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin)
o Prayag (modern Allahabad)
o Saketa (modern Ayodhya) (Important terms can be asked in exam)
Gupta Dynasty was started by SriGupta. He was a feudatory of Kushans and not a sovereign ruler. The true independent ruler of Guptas was Chandragupta I. Gupta Empire 320 CE–550 CE
Sri Gupta (240 – 280) not an independent ruler Ghatotkacha (280 – 319) not an

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independent ruler Chandragupta I (320 – 335) Samudragupta (335 – 380) Ramagupta (375 – 380) Chandragupta II (380 – 413/415) Kumaragupta I (415 – 455) Skandagupta (455 - 467) Purugupta (467 – 473) Kumaragupta II (473 - 476) Budhagupta (476 – 495) Narasimhagupta (495 – ?) Kumaragupta III Vishnugupta (540 – 550) Vainyagupta (550 – ?) Bhanugupta
 Beyond Skandgupta the chronology is not well established.

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Chandragupta I (AD 319 - 334)

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Figure - Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on a coin of their son Samudragupta, 335–380.

 Chandragupta I was the first independent ruler of Gupta Dynasty.

 He married a Lichchhavi Princess.

 The Guptas were possibly vaisyas, and hence marriage in a Kshatriya family gave them prestige.

 He seems to have been a ruler of considerable importance because he started the Gupta era in A.D. 319-20, which marked the date of his accession.

 Later many inscriptions came to be dated in the Gupta era.

Two of the Greatest kings of Guptas were –

 Samudragupta

 Chandragupta II

Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380)

 The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta I’s son and successor Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380).

 Samudragupta delighted in Violence and conquest. (Opposite to Asoka’s policy of peace and non-aggression)

 His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron in Allahabad’s inscription.

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 The best source to know about Samudragupta is the Prayag Prashasti in Allahabad.

 It is written on an Ashokan pillar. It is of great historical importance as details of three kings are engraved on it.

o 1st - Ashoka, who initially established it.

o 2nd - Samudragupta, who got his account written on it in Sanskrit

o 3rd - Jahangir, who got his account inscribed in Persian.

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Figure Prayag Prashasti

According to Prayag prashasti:

Samudragupta defeated

 9 kings of Aryavrata, the most famous of them being Nag dynasty.

 18 kings of central India – most famous being Atvika (a forest tribe)

 12 kings of Southern India – most famous of them being Pallavas.

Vincent Arthur Smith called him the Napoleon of India.

According to the Prayag Prashasti he returned the kingdoms of most of the kings on three conditions:

 The defeated king had to pay tribute to Samudragupta.

 The defeated king had to come personally to his court at least once in a year, generally on his birthday.

 They had to get their daughter married to Samudragupta.

He minted several type of gold coins with different images. His own image with goddess Lakshmi as he claimed he is an Avatar of Vishnu on earth.

Coin issued by Samudragupta

 Images of ‘Garuda’ were also minted.

 Images showing him playing Veena and doing Ashvameghayajna.

 He was also known as Kaviraja.

eco set 2 page 4-12

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Comparison of Indian and Chinese Economy
 In any discussion of India's economy, China is an almost inevitable subtext.
 China, with its advanced modern infrastructure and fantastic growth — exceeding 9 per cent for the past three years -- China sends a clear message to the world of progress and power.
 The country's (China) singular focus on economic development has been shaped by top-down government control that extends into ownership of most major enterprises.
 By contrast, India touts its open society and 'messy', yet functioning, market-based democracy as a more conducive environment for long-term development. Its Western-style legal system and transparent financial systems encourage a chaotic, bottom-up approach to growth.
 India is one of the world's greatest experiments — the challenge is to lift a huge percentage of humanity out of poverty, and to do it in the context of a very freewheeling and open democracy — it could be a huge example for the world.
Crux:
China  singular focus on economic development + top-down government control  modern and advanced infrastructure  consistent high growth rate
India  open society + market-based democracy + bottom-up approach  poor social and physical infrastructure  low or medium growth rate (less than China’s)
Note: It is important for us to know the background and growth story of both the countries as the first point itself hints us that – ‘In any discussion of India's economy, China is an almost inevitable subtext’.
Let us understand How China became – second largest economy, important Asian and Global player, a exporting warehouse? How did it reach there?
So, again let us deal with stories.
Growth Story of China:
 The average Indian was slightly better off than the average Chinese in the initial years after Indian independence. But China’s approach to development has varied markedly

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over the last 40 years and has been so successful that it now ranks as the second most important economy in the world. India has made good progress but is still substantially behind China.
 China and India, despite being such large countries, accounted for only 4.5 per cent and 4.2 per cent of global GDP in 1950 in Purchasing Power Parity (PPP$) terms.
 The ratio of China’s GDP to India’s was 1.18 in 1913 ($241 billion/$204 billion); in 1950 it was 1.08 ($239 billion/$222 billion). Estimates of per capita income of those days suggest that India might have had a higher per capita income. However, there was not a marked difference in the level of human development. ?
Both countries have witnessed challenges:
 Both countries, in the course of history, have feared foreign domination, have considered the state as the driver of growth and have suspected the private sector’s initiatives.
 For India, the problems were achieving unity in diversity and accommodating various languages and religions in a democratic set up.
 On the contrary, China’s hard state enabled it to pursue a single goal with determination and mobilise maximum resources to achieve its goals.
Growth in China
 China experienced many problems in initiating industrialisation, but after some hitches, it switched to an all-round emphasis on heavy and light industries, and had a more successful resource mobilisation strategy than India did. As a result, Chinese manufacturing grew at 9.5 per cent, twice as much as India’s rate, from 1965-80.
 Also, China managed its agrarian reform better than India did.
 On the whole, China grew at a much faster rate than India did during 1950-79, and Chinese per capita GDP was more than twice the rate of India’s. This is largely due to higher growth in Chinese labour productivity and capital deepening.
 By 1978, the per capita income of China was estimated at $979; India’s at $966. China had caught up with India over the 30 years, but not dramatically surpassed it.

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1978 China’s economic reforms
 China made a monumental economic progress because of the economic reforms pushed by Deng Xiaoping.
 The reforms stressed the principle of “each according to his work” rather than “each according to his need,” professionalism and efficient economic management at all levels and the gradual introduction of policy changes to avoid problems in implementation.
 Deng transformed agriculture first and then took on the industrial sector. He opened up the latter to foreign capital while making room for the growth of village and local enterprises.
 The leaders after him (including now Xi Jinping) have continued to follow Deng’s principles, but with some adjustments.
 China’s economic growth was also made possible by a very large net inflow of foreign direct investment, a sign of confidence in the Chinese economy by outside investors.
At present,
 China is the leading nation in exports and the second largest economy in the world.
 The country’s per capita income more than quadrupled, ($5,720 equivalent to about PPP $13,000) and abject poverty was completely eliminated (though income inequality increased).
 China’s Human Development Index has also risen from .423 in 1980 to .719 in 2013, according to the United Nations Development Programme 2014.
Crux: Against China’s success, India’s achievement, though significant compared to what it was before independence, is modest.
India’s story: What India missed?
 India also took tentative steps to modernise its economy in the early 1980s, but these petered out (diminished or dwindled gradually).

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 India freed itself from the constraint of food grain availability, thanks to the Green Revolution. However, India did not manage to apply to its industrial sector the lessons it learnt in its agricultural revolution — using foreign knowledge, relying on the private sector and deploying subsidies selectively.
 Instead, foreign borrowing was used to ease the consumption constraint in the public sector and to cushion loss-making public enterprises.
 India also failed to provide social services such as schooling, medical care and physical services such as water and sanitation.
1991 Economic reforms
 Indian policy underwent directional changes in 1991.
 (Prime Minister Narasimha Rao ushered in reforms which were implemented well by his Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, who then became the second-longest serving Prime Minister of India.)
 Indian economic growth accelerated during the period 1995-2008, but could not maintain the momentum due to political paralysis of policies that were necessary for economic growth. Gross national income per capita in 2015 was $1,590 and India’s HDI increased from 0.369 in 1980 to 0.609 in 2015.
Primary difference
 The primary difference between the performance of the Indian and Chinese economy has been the faster growth of capital stock in China. With only a slight difference in the growth of employment, this translated into a more rapid growth of capital intensity.
 The growth of total factor productivity has also been faster in China. This appears to reflect a greater ease for labour to move out of agriculture into higher productivity sectors in China than in India.
 China has outdistanced India in every area of economic endeavour in the last 35 years, except in computer software industry and agricultural research.
India and China ties:

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 Despite international border issues that still exist between India and China, the two
countries are trying to create a cooperative relationship — China has become one of the
India’s largest trading partner, India’s trade deficit with China is about $52 billion (2015).

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Raw material: (Organize your raw material like below for further chapters)
Initial years after Indian independence:
 Average Indian was slightly better off than the average Chinese
 India and China was somewhere close with respect to PPP and contribution to global GDP
 India had a higher per capita income compared to China
Challenges:

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Both countries, in the course of history,
 have feared foreign domination,
 have considered the state as the driver of growth and
 have suspected the private sector’s initiatives
 India  problems were achieving unity in diversity and accommodating various languages and religions in a democratic set up  No marked difference in the level of human development
 China  China’s hard state enabled it to pursue a single goal with determination and mobilise maximum resources to achieve its goals  China’s approach to development has varied markedly over the last 50 years and has been so successful
Growth plan
 China  singular focus on economic development + top-down government control  modern and advanced infrastructure  consistent high growth rate
 India  open society + market-based democracy + bottom-up approach  poor social and physical infrastructure  low or medium growth rate (less than China’s)
China’s strategy
 switched to an all-round emphasis on heavy and light industries
 had a more successful resource mobilisation strategy
 China managed its agrarian reform better than India
 higher growth in Chinese labour productivity and capital deepening
 greater ease for labour to move out of agriculture into higher productivity sectors
 1978 China’s economic reforms  Deng Xiaoping
o principle of “each according to his work” rather than “each according to his need,”

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o professionalism and
o efficient economic management at all levels
o transformed agriculture first and then took on the industrial sector
o leaders after him  continued same
Outcome
 very large net inflow of foreign direct investment + outside investors
 faster growth of capital stock in China
 growth of total factor productivity has also been faster in China
 leading nation in exports
 per capita income  quadrupled
 Human Development Index improved
India’s Strategy
 Against China’s success, India’s achievement is modest
 India took tentative steps to modernise its economy but dwindled
 Focus was more on Agricultural Revolution  Green Revolution  using foreign knowledge, relying on the private sector and deploying subsidies selectively
 However, same focus was not provided to Industrial or Manufacturing sector  relied on foreign borrowing to ease the consumption constraint in the public sector and to cushion loss-making public enterprises.
 Failed to provide social services and physical services  Poor infrastructure
 1991 Economic reforms  Narasimha Rao - Manmohan Singh
o Liberalistion, Privatisation and Globalisation (LPG)

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o Involvement with global economy
o economic growth accelerated --> but could not maintain the momentum due to political paralysis of policies
Outcome:
 Gross national income per capita, HDI, PPP --> less than China
Can India catch up with China?
 India will most probably overtake China as the most populous country in the world in 2030.
 China is better placed structurally than India for a good economic performance, but it is most likely to be much lower than its recent average performance of about 10 per cent a year. How much lower it would be would depend on its ability to maintain current labour productivity levels and the benefits likely to flow from its proposed trans-continental rail system and other transport-related activities.
 Troubles in China’s financial markets, a declining young and increasing older population as a proportion of the working age population, increasing wages in general and export industries in particular, costs associated with cleaning up serious environmental pollution, increasing competition from other countries in export industries using low-skill and semi-skill labour, lower savings rate and a possibly lower investment rate will have a negative effect on its growth.
 India has an excellent chance of catching up with China if it can increase its labour force participation rate (particularly women), increase the average level of education, improve the quality of its labour force through special training programmes, reduce impediments to let foreign capital participate in its development process, design policies to cultivate a culture of entrepreneurship, and reduce corruption at all levels.
 The problem in India has always been implementation. In a noisy political democracy, problems are compounded by the existence of multiple political parties with no coherent approach to development.

SET 3 History Part 3 BUDDHISM PG 12-24

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 Adoption of Prakrit helped in development of language and its literature.
 Many regional languages had also developed from Prakrit. Shauraseni is one of them. Maratha emerged from shauraseni.
In other languages
 Jainas earliest important works were composed in Apabhramsha. They also composed it’s grammer.
 Jaina literature consists of Epics, Puranas, Novels and Dramma.
 Large portion of Jaina writing is still in manuscript form and not published and still exists in Gujarat and Rajasthan’s shrines.
 During medieval time they wrote in Sanskrit.
 They also contributed to growth of Kannada.
Worshipping
 Initially no image worshipping but later started worshipping Mahavira and 23 Tirthankaras.
 Beautiful images were sculpted for this purpose in Gujrat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
 Jaina art in ancient times was not as beautiful as Buddhism was. But they contributed significantly to art and architecture during medieval times.
Gautama Buddha and Buddhism
 Also known as Siddhartha.
 Contemporary of Mahavira.
 Born – 563 B.C.
 Place – Lumbini in Nepal (near kapilvastu)
 Kshatriya family – Shakya clan
 Father – Suddhodana (probably elected ruler of Kapilvastu)
 Mother – Mahamaya (princess from Koshalan dynasty). She was birth mother while Gautami was the one brought him up.
 Buddha from childhood showed a meditative bent mind.
Sources:
Literary sources to know about Buddha and Buddhism are –
1) Tripitakas (literally – three baskets): These are the three major texts on Buddhism.

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 Vinaya pitaka – rules of monasteries
 Sutta pitaka – Teachings of Buddha
 Abhidhamma Pitaka – Metaphysics and philosophy of Buddhism.
2) Jataka Tales:
They are the part of Sutta Pitaka but contain all the stories of Buddha’s previous lives (more than 550 births in all).
3) Ashokan Dhamma
4) Mahavastu and Divyadane (texts written in Srilanka)
5) Buddha Charitra: This is an autobiography of Buddha, written in 1-2 C AD, by Ashvaghosa in Sanskrit.
The problem with all these literary sources is that, that they have not been written in Buddha’s time, so they do not give the exact picture.
Stories of Buddha’s Earlier Life:
Four sites of Buddha:
 Old man
 Sick man
 Dead body
 A monk
These sites made him realize that there are sorrows in the world. And he wanted to find the solution for these.
 At 29, he left his house with a charioteer ‘Channa’ and a horse ‘Kanthaka’. The act of leaving the house is called ‘Mahabhinishkramana’.
 He met four Brahmans and meditated with them.
 Later, at the age of 35, he sat under a ‘Peepal’ tree on the bank of river Niranjana at Bodhgaya.
 ‘Mara’, a demon, tried to disturb Buddha and brought Hurricane, flood, Earthquake, badnews and finally, he brought his three beautiful daughter. But all of that failed to move Buddha.

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 After a time span of 49 days, Siddhartha got enlightenment and became – ‘Buddha’ i.e. the enlightened. This is called the state of Nirvana In Buddhism (Note: it is different from the Nirvana of Jainism)
 After enlightenment, he meditated again for 49 days.
 He then went to Sarnath (Dear Park) and gave his first sermon to Channa and the four Brahmans. They became his first disciples. Ananda and Upali were two of his closest disciples.
 The first sermon at Sarnath is called ‘Dharma Chakra Parivartan’ i.e. setting the wheal in motion.
 He preached in most parts of the modern day UP and Bihar. For next 40 years continuously, he kept on wandering, preaching and meditating and rests only in rainy season.
 He followed several rules in his schedule – Never stayed for more than one night in a village and three nights in a city. He preached in all seasons except monsoon. He stayed for maximum nights at Shravasti.
 In 483BC, at the age of 80, he attained ‘Mahaparinirvan’ i.e. died at Kushinagar Dist. Of Eastern UP.
Doctrines of Buddhism

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Note: Buddha is older than Mahavira, but Jainism is older than Buddhism.
Bimbisar and Ajatashatru were contemporaries of both Mahavira and Buddha.

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Teachings and Principles:
According to Buddhism, there are four noble truths (Arya Satya)
1. Existence of Sorrow – Dukkha
2. Cause of Sorrow – Desire or Maya
3. There is a way to get rid of Sorrow – Hope
4. Follow the eight-fold path to get Nirvana and Mahaparinirvana.
Ashtangika Marg:

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 Right Thought/views
 Right Resolve
 Right Speech
 Right concentration
 Right livelihood
 Right Exercise
 Right Recollection
 Right Memory
Note: The eight-fold path can be remembered through the code – ‘VRS CLERM’

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Famous Buddhist Councils:
1st Council:
 Period: 483 BC- just after the death of Buddha.
 Place – Rajgriha
 Presided by Mahakasappa
2nd Council:
 Period: 383 BC
 Place: Vaishali
 Presided by Shatakhambri
3rd Council:
 Period: 250-262 BC
 Place: Patliputra
 Presided by Moghiputta Tissa
4th Council:
 Period: 1st Century AD
 Place: Kunzalwar
 Presided by Vasumitra and Ashwaghosha
 At the fourth council the Buddhism got divided into two sects: Hinayana and Mahayana
Hinayana (lower vehicle) is followed in Southern parts (Srilanka, Combodia, Thailand etc). They are more strict and objected to making of idols of Buddha.
Mahayana (higher vehicle) is followed in northern parts (china, India, Tibet etc). They started making idols and were liberal in approach.
Influence of Buddhism
Buddhism became popular very quickly in India. Some of the reasons for its popularity are:
 Asked for non-accumulation of wealth creating lesser social inequalities
 Asked for non-violence → peace and stability (saved cattle wealth and avoided wars)
 It had a simple philosophy and it was free from rituals.
 It followed a balanced approach i.e. neither too harsh like Jainism and nor too mild like Ajivikas.

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 Tried to mitigate the evils resulting from the new material life in the 6th century B.C. by taking full account of the new changes in the material life.
 It was open for all Varnas and did not have caste differentiation.
 It was also open for all classes and gender – rich or poor, male or female.
 Royal Patronage: It received a lot of Royal patronage. Kings built many Stupas and monasteries, sent ambassadorial monks and also there was a tendency of people to align with the rulers.
 Traders gave a lot of donations to promote Buddhism.
 It used the language of masses, Pali, so that everyone could connect and understand the teaching, unlike Sanskrit, which was the language of the elites.
 Objective was to secure the salvation of the individual or nirvana.
 Created and developed a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture (thinking with logic and rational)
Importance of Buddhism in India
 Development of residential universities like Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar and Valabhi in Gujrat.
 Development and rich literature in Pali language.
 Probably developed first human statue worshipping in India. It was of Buddha. (panels at – Gaya (Bihar), Sanchi and Bharhut (M.P.))
 New kind of art by Greek and Indian scluptors on the north west frontier of India – Gandhara Art (covered here)
 Cave architecture (monk’s residence) – Barabar hills in Gaya and at Nasik

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Gandhara Art Features Mathura Gandhara Amravati Time period 2nd C. BC 1st C. BC 1st C. BC Flourished in Mathura region North western part of Indian subcontinent Valley of Krishna and Godavari Prominent places Mathura and Jamalpur village Taxila, Bimaran, Jalabad and Hada Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala and Vengi. Buddhist images adopted from Mathura’s artists 1st to make the images of Buddha Adopted from Mathura Adopted from Mathura Patronization by Initially – local rulers but later by Shakas and Kushanas Shakas and Kushanas Vakatakas and Ikshavakus Influenced by Initially indigenous but after the Shakas and Kushanas patronization, influence of Greeko-Roman Greeko-Roman and so also known as Greeko Roman, Indo-Roman and Greeko Buddhist school of art. No one; Indigenous from beginning to end. Type of Stone used White spotted Red sandstone Blue-Grey Stone White marble Religious or Secular images Both Only religious Both

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Emphasis or focus on Facial expression  Clean shave and head  Abhaymudra and Dharmachakraparivartana Mudra Physical beauty  Muscular body  Transparent cloth  Curly hairs Physical beauty  Expression through postures  Erotic images Continuation Continued till early Medieval age Destroyed by Huna invasions in 5th century AD Got transformed into Pallava and Chola architecture
Buddhist Sangha
Buddhist Sangha was the Buddhist religious order in which Buddhist monks had to live in a certain manner.
Rules for entering the Sangha:
 Age should be at least 15 years.
 No criminal charges should be pending. If a person was convicted and has served the term than he is allowed.
 Person should not be under debt.
 Must not be suffering from a communicable disease.
Code of Conduct:
 Meal was served only once a day.
 Not to sleep on comfortable bed.
 Not to wear any ornaments
 Not to drink
 Not to indulge in any corrupt practices
 Not to have any relationship with the opposite sex
 Dress code: simple unstitched clothes
 Had to ask for bhiksha(begging) from nearby villages. It was believed that asking for bhiksha killed the ego.
Significance of the code of Conduct:

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 To establish a disciplined order
 It helped in resolving the conflicts of the contemporary society like differences between rich and poor, and powerful and weak.
 It is believed, that possibly Buddha wanted to replicate the same in the society.
However, later, the money started pouring in, in the Sangh and monks got inclined towards the materialistic pleasures. From this point the pure Buddhism started decaying.
Decline of Buddhism:
 By early 12th century A.D. it became extinct.
Several reasons can be attributed to the decline of Buddhism like:
 It lost its own identity: gradually the religion became more ritualistic and also started practicing the rituals of Brahmanical and Vedic religion.
 Reforms by Brahmana in their religion.
 Monks took Sanskrit language.
 From the first century AD. they practiced idol worship on a large scale and received numerous offerings from devotees.
 Buddhist monasteries - dominated by ease-loving people and became centers of corrupt practices
 Invasion of monasteries by Turkish because of monastries’ riches.
 Sangh lost way: There were cracks in the Sangh, there was no more discipline.
 Revival of Brahmanism: Brahmanical religion was revived during Gupta Period and the new Religion adopted many practices of Buddhism like vegetarianism etc.
 Lack of Patronage: Palas were the last rulers which provided patronage to Buddhist monasteries. Once the Brahmanical religion was revived, Buddhism lost its grip. Also many kings suppressed them with force. In 7th Century, a Shaivite King ‘Shashank’ chopped the Bodhgaya Pipal tree.

SET 3 History Part 3 JAINISM PG 2-11

Page 2
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
 During the second half of the 6th century B.C. no. of sects arose in Gangetic plains.
 It is said that about 62 religions were existed in that period.
 Most of these were based on regional customs and rituals.
 Jainism and Buddhism were the most important among them and emerged as most potent religious reform movements.
(Note: Ajivika Sect did not have any followers after 14th C AD.)
Causes of origin
Domination of priestly class
 We have read about Varna system in the previous chapter. Brahmanas claimed highest status in society. They demanded several privileges, including those of receiving gifts and exemption from taxation and punishment.
 All the other 3 varnas don’t like the Brahmana’s domination. But Kshatriyas reacted strongly against the ritualistic domination of the Brahmanas.
 Mahavira, founder of the Jainism and Gautam Buddha, founder of the Buddhism belonged to the Kshatriya clan and both disputed the authority of the Brahmanas.
Loss of cattle wealth
 This was the most important reason for the rise of new religions.
 In the 6th century B.C. the use of the iron axes enabled people to clear forest and a new agriculture economy started which was based on the use of ploughshare.
 But use of iron ploughshare required use of bullocks and cattles. Without animal husbandry, agriculture could not flourish.
 But most of the cattle and bullocks were sacrificed in rituals and so peasants were not able to produce surplus.
 There was resentment in agricultural class against rituals and priestly class. Buddhism and Jainism were according to their aspirations and also they condemned the rituals and sacrifices.
Vaishya class’ want of improvement in their status
 In eastern part of India number of cities started emerging.
 For example - Kaushambi, Kusinagar, Banaras, Vaishali, Chirand and Rajgir. (see map)

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 Traders and artisans start emerging from these cities and also started using coins during 5th century B.C. They were the earliest coins and are called as punch marked coins.
 Because of the trading the importance of Vaishya increased.
 They now wanted to improve their positions and so they started looking for a new religion which can do this.
 The merchants gave handsome gifts to Gautama Buddha and his disciples. Reasons for this was –
o In initial stages Jainism and Buddhism not attached any importance to the existing Varna system.

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o Both preached gospel of violence which would put end to wars and as a result will increase the trade and commerce.
o Brahmanical texts like Dharmasutras decried the lending money on interests.
 Because they lent money they were not held in esteem and so they wanted to improve their social status.
Return to primitive life
 The old people don’t like the accumulation of coins (made of gold, silver etc.), new dwellings and dresses, new system of transport, war and violence.
 The new forms of property created social inequalities and caused misery and suffering to the masses of people.
 So, the common people wanted back to their simple life. And this opportunity was provided them by Jainism and Buddhism.
 Jainism and Buddhism not allowed them to touch gold and silver. They were to take only that much which was sufficient for living.
 In other words, there was reaction against changes in material life in north eastern India in 6th century B.C. similar to reaction by man when machines were invented. (It is the nature of human to oppose the change. It’s never easy to adopt to change)
Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism
Jainism
 Jainism believed in 24 Tirthankara or great teachers or leaders of their religion
 1st Tirthankara – Risabhdeva (born in Ayodhya)
o He laid foundations of orderly human society

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 Historical records of only last two Tirthankaras are found – Parsavnath (23rd) and Vardhaman Mahavir (24th)
Parsavnath ji:
 Parsavnath was the 23rd Tirthankar. He was born at Kashi (Banaras).
 Historically he was separated from Vardhaman by 250 years.
 His followers were called Nirgranthis (Free from all bonds).
Vardhaman Mahavira :
 Vardhaman is believed to the real founder of the modern Jainism. His followers are called Jains. He was later known as ‘MAHAVIRA’.
Biography of Vardhaman:
Vardhaman himself was born to Nirgranthi parents (Followers of Parsavnath). The information about his life is received from Jain texts – Purvas, Angas and Upangas, written in 4th – 6th C AD in Prakrit language. Prakrit was the language of the masses while Sanskrit was the language of the elite class.
Other source is the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela (Odisha) in 1st C BC. It is the oldest cave temple found in India. Relation Name Father Siddharth
Mother
Trishala

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Clan Janantrika
Caste
Kshatriya Wife Yashoda
Daughter
Priyadarshika Son In law Jamali (First disciple of Vardhman)
 Born – 540 B.C.
 Place – Kundagram (now Basokund) near Vaisali in Bihar.
 Father – Siddhartha (head of famous Kshatriya clan Jnatrika and ruler of his own area)
 Mother – Trishala (sister of lichchhavi chief Chetaka, whose daughter was wedded to Bimbisara)
 Contemporary of Gautama Buddha.
 Initially he lived life of household but at the age of 30 he abandoned house in search of the truth and became an ascetic.
 For the next 12 years he meditated and practiced the austerities of life.
 At the age of 42 years, he attained the Supreme knowledge (Kaivalya) under a Sal tree in 498 BC at a place called Trimbhigram on the bank of River Rijupalika (Jharkhand). Through kaivalya he conquered misery and happiness.
 Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina i.e. the conqueror of senses, and his followers are known as Jainas.
 He propagated this religion for 30 years and during this period he visited to Koshala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa etc.
 He preached for the first time in the five hills of Nalanda – Vipulchak.
 At the age of 72 (468 BC) he attained Nirvana (died) at Pavapuri (Nalanda).
Doctrines of Jainism

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 5 doctrines –
o Non – Violence: Not to kill or harm any living creature. At that period, trees were considered living so cutting of trees was allowed. However, it was advised not to do agriculture as ploughing of land might kill the small organisms and insects. Hence, peasants were not attracted towards this new faith and it was more famous amongst traders and businessmen.
o Not to Steal: Do not try to take what is not yours rightfully.
o Not to Accumulate: Leads to a problem of haves and have nots. It discouraged hoarding or keeping more than what is required.
o Not to tell A lie: Not to give wrong information to others.
o Celibacy: Celibacy in Jainism is slightly different than that of Hinduism. In Hinduism celibacy means not to marry or not to have a relationship with the other sex.
o In Jainism, apart from the above two, some more conditions are there like:
 Not to see the opposite sex.
 Not to talk to the opposite sex.
 Not to touch the opposite sex.
 Not to feel about the opposite sex.
 Only 5th doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other 4 were taken over by him form previous teachers.
 Non injury to living beings is most important to Jainism. But sometimes it resulted in absurd results like Jain kings ordered execution of persons guilty of killing animals.
 Parshvanath had asked is followers to cover upper and lower part of body while Mahavira had asked them to discard cloth completely as he wanted to a more austere life for his followers.

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 On the basis of this clothing the Jainism was divided into two sects –
o Shvetambaras – those who wear white cloths. (shveta meaning white and ambar meaning cloth)
o Digambaras – those who remained naked.
Philosophy:
The Creator: There is no creator. It does not believe in a supreme God. Tirthankars are the highest authority.
The Universe: The universe is eternal. It has no beginning and no end and it is moving in a cyclic fashion. It moves in phases of Highs and Lows:
 High phase: Avsarpani – during this phase people have a long life (200 – 300 years) and they are very tall (40-50 ft).
 Low phase Utsarpani – During this phase people have shorter life span (15 – 20 years) and short height (2 -3 feet)
Universe is composed of living and non – living elements.
The Soul: Soul exists in both living and non – living elements.

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Where ever there is soul, there is suffering (Dukha). There are three types of elements – rocks and metals (One soul), Trees (two souls) and Animals/humans (three souls). It is prohibited to kill the elements which have three souls.
Afterlife: They believe in afterlife and rebirth. One is trapped in the cycle of life. Till one doesn’t get free from Dukka, one cannot get Nirvana (freedom from the cycle of Death).
How to get NIRVANA?
According to Jainism, Soul is surrounded by Karma (Action).
Karma has four aspects – Inherent and outside as well as Good or bad.
In order to get Nirvana, one has to free himself from all Karma, whether good or bad, inherent or outside. This state of no Karma is called the state of Shunya.
There are certain Dos and Don’ts to achieve this:
Dos – Live an Ascetic life, to give up clothes.

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Don’ts – One should have no attachments.
Jainism on Varna System
 Jainism recognized god’s existence but placed them lower than Jina.
 Not condemned Varna system.
 According to Mahavira a person born in higher or lower Varna depends on sins or virtues by him in his previous births.
 According to him lower castes can liberate themselves through pure and meritorious life.
 Main aim of Jainism – freedom from worldly bonds. This can be achieved by 3 jewels or triratna of Jainism and no rituals are required.
 3 jewels or triratnas of Jainism –
o Right knowledge
o Right faith
o Right action or conduct (5 doctrines are part of it)
 It prohibited war and even agriculture because of killings of living beings. And so, Jainism confined to traders only.
Spread of Jainism
Spread in southern part
 To spread teachings of Jainism, Mahavira organized an order in which both men and women were admitted.
 Mahavira was not having large no. of followers just 14000).
 Spread – in south India and west India where Brahmanical religion was weak.

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 According to a tradition the spread of Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.).
 During his last years of life emperor became a Jaina and led Jaina ascetic life in Karnataka.
 200 years after the death of Mahavira, there was a famine in Magadha. It lasted for about 12 years and in order to protect themselves, many Jaina visited to south under the leadership of the Stahalabahu.
 After the end of the famine Jainas came back to Magadha and there emerge differences between those who visited to south and those who stayed in Magadha.
 To sort out differences and to compile the teachings of Jainism a council was convened at Patliputra but it was boycotted by southern Jainas.
 From now onwards the southern Jainas were called as Digambar and those at Magdhans were called as Shvetambars.
 The tradition belonged to drought is considered as doubtful but it was sure that the Jainas were divided into 2 sects.
 The epigraphic evidence for the spread of the Jainism in Karnataka was not before 3rd century A.D.
 After the 5th century, numerous Jaina monastic establishment called basadis spread in Karnataka. Kings granted land in expectation of support.
 In the 2nd and 1st century B.C. it also spread to southern district of Tamil Nadu.
Spread in other parts
 In 4th century B.C. – kalinga in Orissa
o Kalinga king Kharavela have gave patronage to it in 1st century B.C.
 In later centuries Jainism penetrated into Malwa, Gujrat and Rajasthan (in these places they reside even today engaging in trade)
 It didn’t receive as much patronage as Buddhism and not spread very fast in early times.
 It still holds its places where it spread while Buddhism completely disappeared from Indian subcontinent.
Contribution of Jainism
In Prakrit language
 Tried to mitigate the evils of Varna order and ritualistic Vedic religion.
 Discarded Sanskrit which was patronized by Brahmanas.
 Adopted Prakrit language of common people to preach Jainism doctrines.
 Religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi.
 Texts were compiled at valabhi, Gujrat in 6th century B.C.

science pg 36-46 van 2

 Page 36
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
Agricultural practices
 We have read in ancient history that in 10000 BC people were nomadic i.e. they move from one place to another in search of food.
 They were hunter and gatherer also i.e. hunting the animals and gathering fruits and vegetables for food.
 Later they become agriculturist and adopted agriculture to grow crops.
 Crop – when plants of same kind are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale.
o Example – wheat, rice, maize etc.
 Types of crops – cereals, vegetables and fruits.
 Crops are grown according to climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and rainfall.
 Cropping patterns are of 3 types – Rabi, Kharif and Zaid
o Kharif – grown in rainy season (June to September). E.g. – maize, paddy, soyabean, groundnut, cotton etc.
o Rabi – grown in winter season (Oct. to march) e.g. – wheat, gram, pea, mustard and linseed.
o Zaid – grown between March to June. E.g. – watermelon, muskmelon, pumpkin, cucumber etc.

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Basic practices of crop production
1. Preparation of soil
2. Sowing
3. Adding manure and fertilizers
4. Irrigation
5. Protecting from weeds
6. Harvesting
7. Storage
Preparation of soil
 It is the 1st step before growing a crop.
 Earthworms help in loosening and turning the soil + add humus.
 The loosening and tilling of soil is called as tilling or ploughing.
 Plough can be made of iron or wood.
 If field is dry, then it may need watering.
 If soil contains crumbs, then plank would be required to break them.
 Field is levelled for sowing as well as for irrigation.
Q) Why there is need to prepare soil?
 Turning and loosening the soil helps plant’s roots to penetrate deep into soil.
 It also helps roots to breathe easily.
 Helps in growing earthworm and microbes in soil. (farmer’s friend)
 Bring nutrient rich soil to top.
Agricultural implements
 Before sowing the seeds, the soil had to be broken to the size of grains to get better yield.
 It is done with the tools like plough, hoe and cultivator.
 Note – we need not to study how it works we just have to focus they are used for what purpose?
Plough

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 Use - tilling the soil, adding fertilizers to the crop, removing the weeds, scraping of soil, etc.
 Made of – wood or iron
 Drawn by - pair of bulls or other animals (horses, camels, etc.). It contains a strong triangular iron strip called ploughshare which breaks the soil.
Hoe
 Use - for removing weeds and for loosening the soil.
 Pulled by – animals
Cultivator
 Nowadays ploughing is done by tractor driven cultivator.
 The use of cultivator saves labour and time.
Sowing
 Most important part of crop production.
 Before sowing, good quality seeds are selected so give a high yield.
 Selection of seeds – seeds are put in water, hollow and lighter float on water and they are damaged seeds.
Tools used in sowing seeds –
Traditional tool

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 Shaped like a funnel.
 Seeds are filled into the funnel, passed down through two or three pipes having sharp ends which pierce into the soil and place seeds there.
Seed drill
 Used - for sowing seeds with the help of tractors. It not only sows but also covers them with soil.
 Sows the seeds uniformly at proper distances and depths. (appropriate distance necessary to avoid overcrowding and less competition for resources)
 Advantage – saves time and labor.
Adding manure and fertilizers
 The substances which are added to the soil in the form of nutrients for the healthy growth of plants are called manure and fertilisers.
 Need of fertilizers
o Continuous growing of crops makes the soil deficient in certain nutrients. Adding of manure to the fields to replenish the soil with nutrients. This process is called as manuring.
o Improper or insufficient manuring results in weak plants.
 Manure is an organic substance obtained from the decomposition of plant or animal wastes.
 Fertilizers are chemical substances which are rich in particular nutrient.

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Q) How are fertilizers different from manure? Fertilizer Manure Inorganic salt Natural substance
Prepared in factories
Prepared in fields No humus to soil Lot of humus to soil
Rich in nutrients like NPK
Less rich in nutrients E.g. – Urea, ammonium sulphate, super phosphate, potash, NPK Vermicompost
 Use of fertilizers had helped farmers to increase the yield of crops.
 Excessive use results in barren land, water pollution etc.
 Solution – use organic manure or leave the field uncultivated (fallow) in between two crops.
 Advantages of manure over fertilizers –
o Improves soil texture
o Improves water retaining capacity
o It replenishes the soil with all the nutrients
o It makes the soil porous due to which exchange of gases becomes easy
o It increases the number of friendly microbes
 Other method for replenishing the soil with nutrients – crop rotation (growing different crops alternately)
Irrigation
 Why we need to irrigate crops?
o Plants contain nearly 90% water.
o Germination of seeds does not take place under dry conditions.
o Transportation of nutrients takes place only in water.
o Protects the crop from both frost and hot air currents
 Irrigation - The supply of water to crops at different intervals
 The time and frequency of irrigation varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and season to season.
 Irrigation sources - wells, tube wells, ponds, lakes, rivers, dams and canals.
Traditional methods of irrigation

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 Water available in wells, lakes and canals is lifted up by different methods –
o Moat (pulley -system)
o Chain pump
o Dhekli
o Rahat (lever system)
 These methods are cheaper but less efficient.
Modern methods of irrigation
 Sprinkler system

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o More useful on the uneven land where sufficient water is not available.
o Sprinkler Irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air and irrigated entire soil surface through spray heads so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground.
o Efficient coverage
 Drip system
o Water falls drop by drop just at the position of the roots. So it is called drip system.
o Best technique for watering as provides water to plants drop by drop
o Water is not wasted.
o Boon for regions where water is not available.
Protection from weeds
 Weeds - Growing of many other undesirable plants naturally along with the crop.
 Weeding - removal of weeds.
 Why weeding is necessary?
o Compete with the crop plants for water, nutrients, space and light.

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o Affect the growth of the crop.
o Interfere even in harvesting
o May be poisonous for animals and human beings.
 Ways to remove weeding –
o Tilling - uproots and kill weeds
o Manual removal - physical removal of weeds by uprooting or cutting them close to the ground
o Seed drill is also used to uproot weeds.
 Weedicides – chemicals which are used to control weeds are called as weedicides.
o Like – 2,4 D
o The weedicides are diluted with water and sprayed in the fields with a sprayer.
o No damage to crops.
o Spraying of weedicides may affect the health of farmers. So they should use these chemicals very carefully
Harvesting
 The cutting of crop after it is mature is called harvesting.
 In harvesting, crops are pulled out or cut close to the ground.
 Harvesting in our country is done by following –
o Manually - by sickle

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o By a machine called harvester.
 Separation of grains from chaff is called as Threshing.
 “Combine” machine can be used for this purpose.
 Small land holding farmer separate grain and chaff by winnowing.
Harvest festivals
 The period of harvest is, thus, of great joy and happiness in all part of India.
 Men and women celebrate it with great enthusiasm.
 Special festivals associated with harvest season are – Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya and Bihu. (click here for detailed list)

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Storage
Figure storage of grains in granaries

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Figure food corporation of India (silos for storage of grains)
 If the crop grains are to be kept for longer time, they should be safe from moisture, insects, rats and microorganisms.
 If fresh crops having moisture are stored without drying them then they may get spoilt or attacked by organisms, losing their germination capacity.
 Farmers store grains in jute bags or metallic bins.
 Large scale storage of grains is done in silos and granaries to protect them from pests like rats and insects
 Dried neem leaves are used for storing food grains at home.
 In large godowns specific chemical treatments are required to protect grains from pests and microorganisms.
Animal husbandry
 Animals reared at home or in farms, have to be provided with proper food, shelter and care. When this is done on a large scale, it is called animal husbandry.
Food corporation of India
 The Food Corporation of India was setup under the Food Corporation's Act 1964, in order to fulfill following objectives of the Food Policy:
o Effective price support operations for safeguarding the interests of the farmers.
o Distribution of food grains throughout the country for public distribution system.
o Maintaining satisfactory level of operational and buffer stocks of food grains to ensure National Food Security

science pg 26-35 van 2

ELECTRIC CURRENT AND ITS EFFECTS
Symbols of electric components
 Not much important
Battery – combination of two or more cells.
 The batteries which we see in vehicles is called as automotive battery.

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Automotive battery
 An automotive battery is a rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile.
 These batteries are lead-acid type and provide 12.6 volts of direct current.
 The battery is actually six cells connected in series.
 Battery electric vehicles are powered by a high-voltage electric vehicle battery, but they usually have an automotive battery as well, so that it can be equipped with standard automotive accessories which are designed to run on 12 V.
Electric circuit
 An electric circuit is like a pathway made of wires that electrons can flow through.
 A battery or other power source gives the force (voltage) that makes the electrons move. When the electrons get to a device like a light bulb, your computer, or a refrigerator, they give it the power to make it work.
Heating effect of electric current

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 If wire used in electric circuit has higher resistance, then it gets hot and this is the heating effect of the electric current.
 An electric room heater or an electric heater contain a coil of wire. This coil of wire is called an element.
 Electrical appliances such as immersion heaters, hotplates, irons, geysers, electric kettles, hair dryers, have elements inside them.
 The amount of heat produced in a wire depends on its –
o Material

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o Length
o Thickness
 This is the reason that electric iron or immersion rod has thicker wire.
 The wires used in electric circuit don’t heat easily while filament wire of bulb heats so fast that it is easily available.
 An electric bulb is used for light but it also gives heat.
 This heat is not desirable + wastage of electricity.
 Use fluorescent tube lights or Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in place of bulb to reduce wastage.
 Now days LED (light emitting diodes) are used which are even more efficient than CFL and fluorescent lamps.
 Before buying bulbs or tubes, or CFLs, one should look for the ISI mark (ensures that the appliance is safe and wastage of energy is minimum) of the Bureau of Indian Standards
Led
 An LED lamp is a light-emitting diode (LED) product which is assembled into a lamp (or light bulb) for use in lighting fixtures.
 Lifespan and electrical efficiency several times greater than incandescent lamps.
Bureau of Indian Standards
 BIS is the National Standard Body of India established under the BIS Act 1986 for the harmonious development of the activities of standardization, marking and quality certification of goods and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereof.
 Keeping in view, the interest of consumers as well as the industry, BIS is involved in various activities as given below:
o Standards Formulation
o Product Certification Scheme
o Compulsory Registration Scheme
o Foreign Manufacturers Certification Scheme

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o Hall Marking Scheme
o Laboratory Services
o Laboratory Recognition Scheme
o Sale of Indian Standards
o Consumer Affairs Activities
o Promotional Activities
o Training Services, National & International level
o Information Services
Electric fuses
 Sometimes large current passes through wire and this can raise the temperature of wire so much that it can melt and break. Such wires are made of special metals and are used for electric fuses.
 There would be a limit on maximum current which can flow from a circuit. If current exceeded from this limit then it may cause fire in circuit or make appliances dysfunctional.
 So, electric fuses are used to avoid such situations. In case of high current flow, the wire will melt and circuit will be protected.
 In the below image you have seen such fuses used in your houses.
Reasons for excessive current flow –
 Short circuiting of wire (touching of live and neutral wire)
 Connection of many devices to a single socket.

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MCB (Miniature circuit breakers)
 Now days MCBs are used in place of electric fuses.
 These are like electrical switches which turn off automatically when excessive current flows in circuit.
 We can turn it on when we feel that now circuit has no short-circuit.
 By just turning it on the circuit gets completed.
Advantages of MCB than fuse –
1. It automatically switches off circuit during over load condition or faulty condition. MCB is much more sensitive to over current than fuse.
2. As the switch of MCB comes to off position during tripping, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case of fuse, fuse wire should be checked by opening fuse grip or cutout from fuse base, for confirming the blow of fuse wire.

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3. Quick restoration of supply not possible in case of fuse because faulty wire has to be replaced with new wire. But in the case of MCB we have to just switch on the MCB for supply restoration.
4. Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse.
Disadvantage of MCB
1. Costlier than fuse.
Magnetic effect of electric current
 A scientist called Hans Christian Oersted discovered that the needle of a compass, which is kept near an electric wire, deflects every time the current was passed through the wire.
 It is because the wire through which current passes behaves like a magnet.
Electromagnet
 An electric current can be used to make magnets.
 If a wire is coiled around an object and if current is passed through that coiled wire, then it will act as electromagnet. The coiled wire acts as temporary magnet.
 It has magnetic properties till current is passing through it. As soon as the current stops it’s just a coil.
 Uses of electromagnet
o All kinds of electric devices, including hard disk drives, speakers, motors, and generators, as well as in scrap yards to pick up heavy scrap metal.
o Also used in MRI machines, which utilize magnets to take photos of your insides!
o Doctors use tiny electromagnets to take out small pieces of magnetic material that have accidentally fallen in the eye.
o Many toys also used electromagnets.
Electric bell
 Electric bells also used electromagnets.

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 As you can see in image it has a gong, a hammer and a coil.
 When the switch is pressed the electric current flows through the coil it acts as electromagnet.
 Because the hammer is attached with coil, hammer also acts as electromagnet.
 As soon as the hammer becomes electromagnet it attracts the gong and a sound is produced. (the gong cannot move and so the hammer attracted towards the gong and strikes the gong)
 As the switch is released the hammer not remains electromagnet ? no attraction ? sound is stopped.

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WASTE WATER STORY
 Wastewater – water mixed with pollutants and contaminants like lather, oil, water that goes down the drains from sinks, showers, toilets, laundries etc. is waste water.
 We should not waste it instead it should be used for other purposes but only after cleaning.
Water, our lifeline
 We know the importance of the clean water in our life.
 But unfortunately it is not available to everyone.
 About one billion people don’t have access to clean water and so there are large no. of water borne diseases.
 An international day to celebrate freshwater was recommended at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. The United Nations General Assembly responded by designating 22 March 1993 as the first World Water Day.
 In 2005 UNGA proclaimed the period 2005 – 2015 as the International Decade for action on “Water for life”.
 All efforts made during this decade aim to reduce by half the number of people who do not have access to safe drinking water.
 2016 Theme: Better Water, Better Jobs
 Cleaning of water - A process of removing pollutants before it enters a water body or is reused. This process of wastewater treatment is commonly known as “Sewage Treatment”.
 Cleaning of water takes place in several stages.
What is sewage?
 Sewage – wastewater released by homes, industries, hospitals, offices and other users.
o It also includes rainwater that has run down the street during a storm or heavy rain mixed with soil, concretes waste etc.
o It is a liquid waste
o The impurities inside sewage are called as contaminants.
 sewage is a complex mixture containing suspended solids, organic and inorganic impurities, nutrients, saprotrophic and disease causing bacteria and other microbes.
o Organic impurities – Human faeces, animal waste, oil, urea (urine), pesticides, herbicides, fruit and vegetable waste, etc.
o Inorganic impurities – Nitrates, Phosphates, metals.
o Nutrients – Phosphorus and Nitrogen.
o Bacteria – Such as which cause cholera and typhoid.
o Other microbes – Such as which cause dysentery.
Waste water treatment plant (WWTP)

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Treatment of wastewater involves physical, chemical, and biological processes, which remove physical, chemical and biological matter that contaminates the wastewater.
1. Bar screen – it clears large objects like rags, sticks, cans, plastic packets, napkins etc.

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2. Grit tank - speed of the incoming wastewater is decreased to allow sand, grit and pebbles to settle down.
3. Settling tank - water is then allowed to settle in a large tank which is sloped towards the middle. Solids like faeces settle at the bottom and are removed with a scraper. This is the sludge. Skimmer removes the floatable solids like oil and grease. At this stage water is known as clarified water.
a. Now water is transferred to another tank where anaerobic bacteria decomposes the waste in water. While decomposing they may produce biogas which can be used to produce electricity.
4. Aeration tank - Air is pumped into the clarified water to help aerobic bacteria to grow. Bacteria consume human waste, food waste, soaps and other unwanted matter still remaining in clarified water.
After several hours the microbes settled in the bottom of tank as activated sludge (about 97%). Now water can be removed from above. The dried sludge can be used as manure, returning nutrients and organic matter to soil.
Treated water consists low amount of organic material and so now it can be safely discharged into sea, river or ground. Nature has its own ways to clean the water and so it will be further cleaned.
But sometimes it is necessary to disinfect water with chemicals like chlorine or ozone before releasing it into distribution system.
 In the battle of wastewater treatment eucalyptus can prove effective as they absorbs surplus wastewater rapidly and release pure water vapor into the atmosphere.
Sanitation and disease
 Poor sanitation and contaminated drinking water is the cause of a large number of diseases.
 That’s why our PM had started the Swachh bharat mission.
 Open defecation is one of the major problem as untreated human excreta is a health hazard. It causes water pollution and soil pollution.
 When we say water pollution, here it means surface water as well as ground water. Pollution of water can result in water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, polio, meningitis and hepatitis and dysentery.

Indian-Economic-Development Pg 46-54

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Consumer Price Index (CPI)
A comprehensive measure used for estimation of price changes in a basket of goods and
services representative of consumption expenditure in an economy is called consumer price
index
The calculation involved in the estimation of CPI is quite rigorous. Various categories and
sub-categories have been made for classifying consumption items and on the basis of
consumer categories like urban or rural.
Based on these indices and sub-indices obtained, the final overall index of price is calculated
mostly by national statistical agencies.
It is one of the most important statistics for an economy and is generally based on the
weighted average of the prices of commodities. It gives an idea of the cost of living.
Inflation is measured using CPI. The percentage change in this index over a period of time
gives the amount of inflation over that specific period, i.e. the increase in prices of a
representative basket of goods consumed.
Explainer Video – Click Here
Wholesale Price Index (WPI)
Wholesale Price Index (WPI) represents the price of goods at a wholesale stage i.e. goods
that are sold in bulk and traded between organizations instead of consumers. WPI is used as
a measure of inflation in some economies.
WPI is used as an important measure of inflation in India. Fiscal and monetary policy
changes are greatly influenced by changes in WPI. In the United States, Producer Price Index
(PPI) is used to measure inflation.
WPI is an easy and convenient method to calculate inflation. Inflation rate is the difference
between WPI calculated at the beginning and the end of a year. The percentage increase in
WPI over a year gives the rate of inflation for that year.
Fiscal Deficit
The difference between total revenue and total expenditure of the government is termed as
fiscal deficit. It is an indication of the total borrowings needed by the government. While
calculating the total revenue, borrowings are not included.


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The gross fiscal deficit (GFD) is the excess of total expenditure including loans net of
recovery over revenue receipts (including external grants) and non-debt capital receipts.
The net fiscal deficit is the gross fiscal deficit less net lending of the Central government.
Generally fiscal deficit takes place either due to revenue deficit or a major hike in capital
expenditure. Capital expenditure is incurred to create long-term assets such as factories,
buildings and other development.
A deficit is usually financed through borrowing from either the central bank of the country
or raising money from capital markets by issuing different instruments like treasury bills and
bonds.
Explainer Video – Click Here
Inflation
Inflation is the percentage change in the value of the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) on a yearon
year basis. It effectively measures the change in the prices of a basket of goods and
services in a year. In India, inflation is calculated by taking the WPI as base.
Formula for calculating Inflation =
(WPI in month of current year-WPI in same month of previous year)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- X 100
WPI in same month of previous year
Inflation occurs due to an imbalance between demand and supply of money, changes in
production and distribution cost or increase in taxes on products. When economy
experiences inflation, i.e. when the price level of goods and services rises, the value of
currency reduces. This means now each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services.
It has its worst impact on consumers. High prices of day-to-day goods make it difficult for
consumers to afford even the basic commodities in life. This leaves them with no choice but
to ask for higher incomes. Hence the government tries to keep inflation under control.
Contrary to its negative effects, a moderate level of inflation characterizes a good economy.
An inflation rate of 2 or 3% is beneficial for an economy as it encourages people to buy
more and borrow more, because during times of lower inflation, the level of interest rate


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also remains low. Hence the government as well as the central bank always strive to achieve
a limited level of inflation.
Types of Inflation
Creeping Inflation:
When prices rise at very slow rate, i.e. creeper’s speed, it is called ‘creeping inflation.
Generally 3% annual rise in prices is considered as ‘creeping inflation’.
Walking or Trotting Inflation:
When inflation is in between 3% to 7%, it’s regarded as ‘walking or trotting inflation’. Some
economists have extended the boundary of this type of inflation up to 10% per annum. This
type of inflation is considered as a warning signal for the government to take some
measures to control the situation.
Running Inflation:
This type of inflation comes into action when there’s a rapid rise in prices and the range of
this type lies in between 10% to 20% per annum. This type of inflation is controllable only by
strong monetary and fiscal measures, lest it will be turned into ‘hyper-inflation’.
Hyper Inflation or Galloping Inflation:
The rise of prices from 20% to 100 % per annum is regarded as ‘hyper-inflation’ or ‘galloping
inflation’. This case of inflation is uncontrollable.
Demand Pull Inflation:
This type of inflation is due to an excess demand. In this case supply remains constant
(couldn’t be upgraded as per demand). So consequently, the prices go up.
Cost Push Inflation:
When there’s increase in money-wages at speedier rate than that of the rise in the
productivity of labour, it results as increased cost of production which furthers the increase
in prices. This type of inflation is regarded as cost push inflation.
Mixed Inflation:
Majority of the economists hold that, inflation is neither completely ‘demand pull’ nor
completely ‘cost push’, the actual inflationary process contains the elements of both. Excess
demand and increase in money wages operate at the same time, but it’s not necessary that
they start at the same time.


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Markup inflation:
Garner Akley put forward the theory of ‘mark-up inflation’. In simple words it is an advanced
explaination of ‘Mixed inflation’. According to Akley First comes demand pull inflation, and it
is led by cost push inflation. Markup inflation comes to happen when excess demand
increases the prices, which stimulates the production. The increasing production creates
excessive demand for the factors of production, and the excessive demand for the factors of
production further raises the prices.
Monetary Policy
What a CENTRAL BANK does to control the MONEY SUPPLY, and thereby manage DEMAND.
Monetary policy involves OPEN-MARKET OPERATIONS, RESERVE REQUIREMENTS and
changing the short-term rate of interest. It is one of the two main tools of
MACROECONOMIC POLICY, the side-kick of FISCAL POLICY, and is easier said than done well.
The RBI uses the interest rate, Open Market Operations (OMO), changes in banks' CRR and
primary placements of government debt to control the money supply. OMO, primary
placements and changes in the CRR are the most popular instruments used.
 Under the OMO, the RBI buys or sells government bonds in the secondary market.
By absorbing bonds, it drives up bond yields and injects money into the market.
When it sells bonds, it does so to suck money out of the system.
 The changes in CRR affect the amount of free cash that banks can use to lend -
reducing the amount of money for lending cuts into overall liquidity, driving interest
rates up, lowering inflation and sucking money out of markets.
 Primary deals in government bonds are a method to intervene directly in markets,
followed by the RBI. By directly buying new bonds from the government at lower
than market rates, the RBI tries to limit the rise in interest rates that higher
government borrowings would lead to
Philips Curve
An economic concept developed by A. W. Phillips stating that inflation and unemployment
have a stable and inverse relationship. The theory states that with economic growth comes
inflation, which in turn should lead to more jobs and less unemployment. The concept has
been proven empirically and some government policies are directly influenced by it. Some
level of inflation could be considered desirable in order to minimize unemployment.


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Laffer Curve
Invented by Arthur Laffer, this curve shows the relationship between tax rates and tax
revenue collected by governments. The chart below shows the Laffer Curve:
The curve suggests that, as taxes increase from low levels, tax revenue collected by the
government also increases.
It also shows that tax rates increasing after a certain point (T*) would cause people not to
work as hard or not at all, thereby reducing tax revenue.
Eventually, if tax rates reached 100% (the far right of the curve), then all people would
choose not to work because everything they earned would go to the government.
Governments would like to be at point T*, because it is the point at which the government
collects maximum amount of tax revenue while people continue to work hard.


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Engel’s Curve
Engel's law is an observation in economics stating that, with a given set of tastes and
preferences, as income rises, the proportion of income spent on food falls, even if actual
expenditure on food rises. In other words, the income elasticity of demand of food is less
than 1. The law was named after the statistician Ernst Engel.
An Engel curve is the relationship between the amount of a product that people are willing
to buy and their income. An Engel curve is shown below.
Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient
A Lorenz curve shows the degree of inequality that exists in the distributions of two
variables, and is often used to illustrate the extent that income or wealth are distributed
unequally in a particular society.
The Gini coefficient is the area between the line of perfect equality and the observed Lorenz
curve, as a percentage of the area between the line of perfect equality and the line of
perfect inequality. A Gini coefficient is a summary numerical measure of how unequally one
variable is related to another. The Gini coefficient is a number between 0 and 1, where
perfect equality has a Gini coefficient of zero, and absolute inequality yields a Gini
coefficient of 1.


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Misery Index
Created by: Economist Arthur Okun
It is the sum of a country’s INFLATION and UNEMPLOYMENT rates. The higher the score, the
greater is the economic misery.
Trade Barriers
A trade barrier is a general term that describes any government policy or regulation that
restricts international trade. The barriers can take many forms, including:
 Import duties
 Import licenses
 Export licenses
 Import quotas
 Tariffs
 Subsidies
 Non-tariff barriers to trade
 Voluntary Export Restraints
 Local Content Requirements
Non-Tariff Trade Barriers
Non-tariff barriers to trade are trade barriers that restrict imports but are not in the usual
form of a tariff. Some of the common examples are anti-dumping measures and
countervailing duties, which, although they are called "non-tariff" barriers, have the effect
of tariffs but are only imposed under certain conditions. Their use has risen sharply after the
WTO rules led to a very significant reduction in tariff use.


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Now what is Counter Vailing duty
Countervailing duties (CVDs) are a means to restrict international trade. They are imposed
when a foreign country subsidizes its exports, hurting domestic producers.
Deflation
When the overall price level decreases so that inflation rate becomes negative, it is called
deflation. It is the opposite of the often-encountered inflation.
A reduction in money supply or credit availability is the reason for deflation in most cases.
Reduced investment spending by government or individuals may also lead to this situation.
Deflation leads to a problem of increased unemployment due to slack in demand.
Central banks aim to keep the overall price level stable by avoiding situations of severe
deflation/inflation. They may infuse a higher money supply into the economy to counterbalance
the deflationary impact. In most cases, a depression occurs when the supply of
goods is more than that of money.
Deflation is different from disinflation as the latter implies decrease in the level of inflation
whereas on the other hand deflation implies negative inflation.
Foreign Exchange Reserves
Forex reserves are foreign currency assets held by the central banks of countries.
These assets include foreign marketable securities, monetary gold, special drawing rights
(SDRs) and reserve position in the IMF. The main purpose of holding foreign exchange
reserves is to make international payments and hedge against exchange rate risks.
Special Drawing Rights
This is a kind of reserve of foreign exchange assets comprising leading currencies globally
and created by the International Monetary Fund in the year 1969
Before its creation, the international community had to face several restrictions in
increasing world trade and the level of financial development as gold and US dollars, which
were the only means of trade, were in limited quantities. In order to address the issue, SDR
was created by the IMF.
SDR is often regarded as a 'basket of national currencies' comprising four major currencies
of the world - US dollar, Euro, British Pound and Yen (Japan). The basket will be expanded to
include the Chinese renminbi (RMB) as the fifth currency, effective October 1, 2016. The
composition of this basket of currencies is reviewed every five years wherein the weightage
of currencies sometimes get altered