Subsidy

 
What is subsidy?
• Subsidy literally means assisting from behind.
• Subsidy is the opposite of tax – it is an instrument of fiscal policies
Objective of subsidies
By means of creating a wedge between consumer prices and producer costs, lead to changes in demand/ supply decisions
Forms of subsidies
• cash payment to producers/consumers  --> visible form
• reduced tax-liability
• low interest government loans
• government equity participation.
P.S: If the government procures goods, such as food grains, at higher than market prices or if it sells as lower than market prices, subsidies are implied.
Need of subsidy: (1)
a) Inducing higher consumption/ production
b) Offsetting market imperfections ( it is a situation where free markets fail to allocate resources efficiently)
c) Achievement of social policy objectives including redistribution of income, population control, etc.
d) can help in controlling the prices to maintain stability.
e) Especially in case of agriculture where food is basic right of all, one cannot leave everything to market, government intervention is needed.
Agriculture subsidy:
First some background--
Indian Government role in agriculture sector development.
• To create self-sufficiency
• employment creation
• support to small-scale producers for adopting modern technologies and inputs
• reduction of price instability and improvement of the income of farm households.
This can be done in forms such as :
• import-export policies
• domestic policies like
- price support programs
- direct payments
- inputsubsidies to influence the cost and availability of farm inputs (like credit, fertilizers, seeds, irrigation water, etc. )
Input subsidies benefit economically, environmentally and socially
Inputs like fertilizers, irrigation water and electricity have a significant share in agricultural subsidies
What is Agricultural Subsidy?
"An agricultural subsidy is a governmental financial  support paid to farmers and agribusinesses to supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities.
 
Types
• Two major types of subsidies
 fertilizer subsidies
 food subsidy
These  two account for almost 90 percent of agricultural subsidy.
• one more form which is intangible and uncountable is that, agricultural income is not taxed in India.
The agriculture subsidies are distributed by every country but the amount varies. In India, the subsidies provided are very low compared to other countries while number  of dependents is very large. Thus, agriculture subsidy for our poor farmers is one important tool to help our agriculture sector grow
Problems with Agri Subsidy
a) Agri subsidies intended to raise farmer incomes by remedying low crop prices – instead they promote over production and therefore lower crop prices
b) Agri subsidies promote over production of one crop thus other crops are not/less available in the market
c) Distinguishing between the needy and a non needy is difficult . For eg-  In US 90% of farm subsidy goes to largest 25 percent of farms. In European Union, Japan and Canada this figure is 70 percent.
d) Many economists (including Joseph Stiglitz) have argued  in long term the agri-subsidies will affect raising global food prices therefore harming  the poor, increasing malnutrition, etc.
e) Also subsidies hamper terms of trade and so doesn’t allows one country  to take benefits of comparative advantage.
f) Due to extensive government participation,  subsidies may create inefficiencies
g) There are issues like the straining effects of agricultural subsidies on the sub-optimal use of scarce inputs like water and power induced by subsidies, and whether subsidies lead to systemic inefficiencies
Agriculture in WTO
Before the Uruguay Round, agriculture was not included as a substantial part
Need of including agriculture in trade negotiation:

















Therefore, for a fair agricultural trade regime following is necessary–
• reduction of domestic production subsidies given by developed countries (US and EU particularly)
• reduction in the volume of subsidized exports and
• minimum market access opportunities for agricultural producers world-wide.
Following table shows important milestones for agricuture in WTO
Period Round Agreements Important aspects
1986–94
(was supposed to be for 4 years) UruguayRound
Agreement on Agriculture - aimed towards fairer competition and a less distorted sector
- WTO member governments agreed to improve market access and reduce trade-distorting subsidies in agriculture
- these commitments were phased in over a six years from 1995 (10 years for developing countries)
- The Agriculture Committee oversees the agreement’s implementation
2001-till present
(was supposed to be for 3 years) Doha Development Round
  - was planned to finish in January 2005 but prolonged
- US wanted to restrict a new round to market access issues esp. agriculture
- member governments committed themselves to comprehensive negotiations aimed at:
o market access: substantial reductions
o exports subsidies: reductions of, with a view to phasing out, all forms of these
o domestic support: substantial reductions for supports that distort trade


We must know about the AoA (Agreement on Agriculture) as it is in news currently:
Agreement on Agriculture
• Final Act of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations,
• signed in April 1994 at Marrakesh, Morocco
• came into force on 1st January, 1995
• All WTO members, except least developed countries (LDCs), were required to make commitments in all these areas in order to liberalize agricultural trade
• Three ‘pillars’ of AoA:  market access, export subsidy and domestic support.

Before proceeding to the features of AoA- we need to know the boxes mentioned on WTO's site as it is related to the agreement here
The boxes
In WTO, general subsidies are identified by “boxes”  with different colours:
• green (permitted subsidies)
• amber (slow down — i.e. subsidies to be reduced),
• red (forbidden subsidies)
The Agriculture Agreement has no red box (although domestic support exceeding the reduction commitment levels in the amber box is prohibited)
Thus, AoA has the following boxes:
• Amber (de-minimis)
• Green
• Blue (for subsidies that are tied to programs that limit production)
• S&D (exemptions for developing countries)
Salient Features of AoA

Market Access Tariffication of all non-tariff barriers - non-tariff barriers ( quantitative restrictions and export and import licensing etc) to be replaced by tariffs to provide the same level of protection.
- Developing countries given a limited element of special and differential treatment (S&DT).
Setting up of a minimum level for imports of agricultural products - Minimum level will be as a share of domestic consumption.
- Countries required to maintain 1986-88 levels of access for each individual product.
- The market access provision, however, does not apply when the commodity in question is a ‘traditional staple’ of a developing country.
 
Domestic support • identifies acceptable measures that support farmers
• denies unacceptable, trade distorting support to the farmers
• this is done through AMS ( described later)
• Commitment made required a 20% reduction in total AMS for developed countries over 6 years. For developing countries, this percentage is 13% and no reduction is required for the LDC
Export subsidies:. • several types of subsidies to which reduction commitments apply
• eg- direct export subsidies dependent on export performance; sales of noncommercial stocks of agricultural products for export at prices lower than comparable prices for such goods in the
domestic markets; producer-financed subsidies; cost-reduction measurse such as subsidies to reduce marketing costs for exports including handling costs and costs of international freight; internal transport subsidies applying only to exports; subsidies on incorporated products i.e., subsidies on agricultural products such as wheat dependent on their incorporation in export products made of wheat etc.
• such subsidies are virtually non-existent in India as exporters of agricultural commodities do not get direct subsidy (they might get it indirectly as in the form of income tax rebate etc)

 
Very important terms related to this topic
Aggregate Measurement of Support (AMS).
• All domestic support is quantified through the mechanism of total Aggregate Measurement of Support (AMS)
• It is a means of quantifying the aggregate value of domestic support or subsidy given to each category of agricultural product.
• consists of two parts
o Product-specific subsidy refers to the total level of support provided for each individual agricultural commodity, essentially signified by procurement price in India.
o Non-product specific subsidy, on the other hand, refers to the total level of support for the agricultural sector as a whole, i.e., subsidies on inputs such as fertilisers, electricity,  irrigation, seeds, credit etc.
There are three categories of support measures that are not subject to reduction under the Agreement, and support within specified deminimis level is allowed.
1. Measures which have a minimum impact on trade i.e.Green Box criteria
Ex:Government assistance on general services like
(i) research, pest and disease control, training, extension, and advisory services;
(ii) public stock holding for food security purposes;
(iii) domestic food aid; and
(iv) direct payment toproducers like governmental financial participation in income insurance and safety nets, relief from natural disasters, and payments under environmental assistance programmes.


2. Developing country measures otherwise subject to reduction i.e. S&D Box criteria
Examples
(i) investment subsidies which are generally available to agriculture in developing countries; and
(ii) agricultural input services generally available to low income and resource poor producers in developingcountries.
3. Direct payments under production limiting programme i.e. Blue Box criteria
These are relevant from the developed countries point of view only.
Also, under Amber box i.e. de-minimis provision - it is not required to reduce support in this category if a product's value in any year remains below 10% for developing countries of the total value of production of the basicagricultural product in question or of the value of total agricultural production in the case of non-product specific support
PEACE CLAUSE
• Article 13 (“due restraint”) of the Agriculture Agreement
• protects countries using subsidies which comply with the agreement from being challenged under other WTO agreements
• Without this, countries would have greater freedom to take action against each others’ subsidies, under the Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement
• The peace clause expired at the end of 2003 but Some countries  (read US/EU) are pushing for extending it to 2014 so that they can enjoy some degree of “legal security”, ensuring that they will not be challenged so long as they comply with their commitments on export subsidies and domestic support under the Agriculture Agreement
• Some others want it to lapse as part of their overall objective to see agriculture brought under general WTO disciplines that deal with governments’ ability to take action against subsidies
• Some countries have proposed variants. Eg: Canada would like to see “green box” domestic supports freed from the possibility of countervailing action under the Subsidies Agreement. India proposes something like the peace clause should be retained but only for developing countries, so that some subsidies are free from the possibility of countervailing duty

G-33
• Coalition of 47 developing countries focused on defending their interests in subsistence agriculture, food security and rural livelihood
• India - has had over 500% inflation since 1988 –Thus, India has made out a case for full inflation allowance which will help the government procure grain from farmers(The Hindu)
• The proposal of the G-33 countries is in line with India’s position but the West will resist this change
• Clause 18.4 of the AoA does mention that developing economies shall receive “due allowance for inflation” in determining procurement prices
• US and EU say that the AoA does not commit full allowance for inflation and thus, “peace clause” must be accepted for the next 3 years
Current scenario
• India is willing to accept Peace clause since it has started the food security program. If India doesn't do this then it will be on back foot as due to NFS Act the procurement price of many grains will shoot up very soon
• For example- in India, procurement price of rice has shot up 24% from 1986-88- but only 10% was allowed (remember de-minimis level) – thus, if Indiadoesn't allow peace clause it would not be able to procure wheat and other grains for food security act.
• But this move by US/EU is a Hippocratic one as US itself provides a large amount of "trade distorting subsidies" but blames India for doing it by launching the food security bill
• In reality, food security bill is not under the radar but India's PDS system will be. Thus, India needs to be careful while putting up any of its point at the upcoming Bali meet in December
• It is still unclear that all G-33 members will support peace clause or not
 

Important links to refer:
What? Link
List of G-33 members http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dda_e/negotiating_groups_maps_e.htm?group_selected=GRP017

Link to various boxes http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/agric_e/agboxes_e.htm

Newsletter "India and WTO" published regularly by Ministry of Commerce, a good read for international trade http://commerce.nic.in/trade/international_trade.asp?id=1&trade=i


References:
• http://agricoop.nic.in/statistics/stock2.htm
• http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/agricultural-subsidies-reform-government-support
• http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2007/06/how-farm-subsidies-harm-taxpayers-consumers-and-farmers-too
• http://www.indianexpress.com/news/subsidies-in-fact/1093243/
• http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/14-ag_02_e.htm
• http://www.ijssbt.org/volume1/pdf/11.pdf
• http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/agric_e/negs_bkgrnd13_boxes_e.htm
• WTO AGREEMENT ON AGRICULTURE  - report by ACTION AID
• www.irinnews.org/printreport.aspx?reportid=98972
• The Use of Input Subsidies in Developing Countries – report by OECD

Personal details:
Akanksha Tiwari

Watershed

Introduction
Our environment is progressively degraded due to over exploitation of natural resources.
Population pressure indiscriminate tree felling, over grazing, unsound agricultural practices, all these and other factors contribute towards this degradation.
In the degraded landscape with little or no tree cover and subsequently little soil cover, the rain water is not able to percolate into the ground and flows away to the streams.
Along with this water we lose rich top soil which is necessary for any vegetation to grow.
It is a vicious cycle no top soil means no vegetation which leads to increase run off water and further erosion of top soil.
Why Watershed?
Waters are flowing to streams and joining to sea or oceans means there is little or no contribution for rain water to be absorbed by soil which means that the ground water level is decreasing so rather that exploitation of water we have to arrange for refilling of the water and also prevent the fertile soil to get eroded.
Objective
Primary objective of the programme is to conserve our natural resources the top six inches of the land are most fertile and most of the soil nutrients are present in that layer, the top soil is eroded with flowing water every year we have to prevent that.
Similarly the rain water also flows away and needs to be stopped; the speed of the flowing water has to reduce so that it doesn’t wash away the top soil so the basic work involves soil and water conservation.

It’s like a bank if you have money in the bank only then we can withdraw similarly the bank of our watershed is our hills if there are enough trees grasses and different kinds of treatment then the hills can conserve or store water inside them.If there is enough shade then the rain water will not directly impact onto the soil but rather its impact will be cushioned by the leaves of the trees or vegetative cover otherwise the water would be carried away by the loose top soil with its force.So we don’t just have to stop the water but also have to cover it i.e., to protect it direct rainfall sunlight and animals.
What is Watershed?
Along Centuries human beings have settled across rivers of catchment area which form lakes and provide regular supply of water to them

Watershed of a particular river or stream is defined as that area which collects the rain water and drains it into gully’s and nala bunds to a point on that river or stream. It may be small consisting of few hectares and huge covering several millions of hectares.
Delineation of a Watershed
Delineation of a watershed mean determining the boundary of the watershed i.e. ridgeline.
A watershed consists of three types of linesRidge Line, Drainage Line and Contour Lines.

After knowing the concept of watershed, it becomes important to see how a watershed can be identified on the site.
The watershed of any size can be delineated from the following:
1. Ridge Line
2. Outlet (Drainage Line)

Ridge Line is the line that joins comparatively the highest elevation points and that becomes the boundary of the watershed. A ridgeline bifurcates the falling water on two opposite sides.
The most important aspect for defining and delineating a watershed is to fix the outlet of the drainage course. As the outlet goes downstream of the drainage course, the area of the watershed goes on increasing. Basically location (position) of the outlet defines the area of watershed.

Watersheds are classified based on the area (size):
• Micro watershed (upto 10 ha)
• Mini watershed (upto 200 ha)
• Sub watershed (upto 4000 ha)
• Watershed (upto 10,000 ha)
• River basin or River valley ( more than 10,000 ha)

Watersheds are of different types based on their location:
• Runoff watershed or ”A” class watershed (Upper reach watershed): These watersheds are at the origin of river or at the upper catchment of river basin. Runoff is the main characteristic here.
• Recharging watershed or ”B” class watershed (Middle reach watershed): These are on the plateau area characterised by medium percolation and infiltration.
• Storage watershed or ”C” class watershed (Lower reach watershed): These watersheds are in the plains and characterised by good infiltration and recharging.
Watersheds are also based on the ground water exploitation:
• Dark watershed: In these watersheds annual ground water pumping is more than 85 % of annual recharging. These watersheds are also called fully “developed” (exploited) watersheds.
• Grey watershed: In these watersheds annual ground water drafting is 65 – 85 % of annual recharging.
• Yellow watershed: In theses watersheds annual ground water drafting less than 65% of annual recharging. These are called as least developed or exploited watershed.

The dark watersheds need to be treated on the priority basis.
Watersheds can be of different shapes:
• Square
• Rectangular
• Triangular
• Polygonal

The volume of water at the outlet of the watershed depends on the shape of the watershed and hence this needs to be taken into consideration while planning treatments for the watershed.

While planning for development of any watershed, one needs to look deeply into various aspects:
• The size, shape, average slope of the watershed
• Vegetation and land use
• Soil texture, depth of soil, geology
• Average annual rainfall, rainfall period and its distribution, rainfall intensity and frequency, infiltration rate
What will Watershed Management do?
Watershed management is treatment of the entire catchment area and an attempt to regeneration conservation and judicious use of all resources natural like plants water land animals within a particular watershed can be referred to as watershed management.

Watershed development must be run from ridge to valley basis.

The main objective behind watershed developments treatments is to reduce the velocity of fast flowing water and increase the time of concentration which will allow the water to percolate and recharge the subsurface aquifers.

Watershed development programme has to be undertaken from the top most point where the rain water after flowing starts flowing downwards this point is called the Ridge.
The watershed has to start from the ridge and progress downwards to the valley. There are reasons for this firstly soil conservation is essential for watershed development if only water storage structures are built the purpose of halting soil erosion is defeated. The soil gets washed away and collects in these structures due to this silt gets deposited over the years and the structure gets filled with the soil this leads to reduction in its capacity to store water thus neither soil and nor the water is conserved.
Secondly if there are no barriers at the ridge the water will flow down at such a high rate/velocity that it’ll wash away the water storage structure below or the structures has to be strong enough to withstand the velocity this means an additional expenditure.

Watershed developments are to be down along the contour lines these are the lines joining the points that are at the same altitude or height. This ensures the water that collects at the treated area remains at the uniform level leading to even moisture throughout the land.
It also reduces the chances of the structure breaking as the water pressure at all point on the treatment is the same.

From top of the hills downwards the series of structures is made that would ensure step by step slowing down the fast flowing of water until a part of it finally stopped. This results in control of erosion retention of soil fertility better soil moisture infiltration and ground water recharge
Area treatment in Non-Arable Waste Land
• Water absorption trenches
• Continuous contour trenches
• Stone bunds

Water Absorption Trenches (WAT)is large size trench excavated along the contour line with the cross section of 1sq meter. It is usually excavated on highly degraded waste land where the slope is steep and sudden changes in the slope. To trap rain water enable it to percolate to underground aquifers and break the speed of fast moving water Continuous Contour Trenches(CCT)are excavated. Besides helping in percolation these CCT increase soil moisture which help in the growth of grass shrubs and trees.



Depending upon the rainfall the dimensions of the CCT will vary and so will the required volume of earth work per hectare. Since fodder is basic requirement in rural livelihood grasses of nutritional variety can be planted across the mounds of that and CCT as well as beds between the CCT. This not only provides fodder for animals it also prevents the soil erosion. When degraded land require plantation the CCTs are refilled. The top soils from the upstream side are filled in the CCT.



After digging the CCT will refill them. On the hill we have the CCT which is 30cm wide, we dig soil from the upstream side up to 1m above the CCT and put this soil into the CCT.The height of the soil column that is refilled in the CCT should be around 45 – 60cm from the bottom of the CCT and in the centre of the refilled portion we plant trees.

This treatment results in good survival rate of plants generally in place where soil depth is little. It allows proper aeration and prevents root coiling and creates a moisture bank so necessary for plant growth especially in arid areas.

On the CCTs which are suitably weathered and refilled with earth, trees grasses and shrubs are planted.
These are usually local species which meets the local needs of fuel fodder timber fruits and fiber. Where the soil depths are not sufficient the pastures are developed.

Where there is enough soil depth CCT’s are doneup to 30 cm deep these are dug across the slope and maintaining the same level. Where ever the terrain is rocky and there is not enough soil we make Bunds using stones.

Stone bunds are laid along the contour lines across the slope to arrest the flow of water and control erosion in areas where soil excavation work is not possible. Stone bunds can be erected in both arable and not arable lands.



Area Treatment on Cultivable Land.
• Farm bunds.
• Contour bunds.
• Waterways and outlets.

Watershed development also involves taking up of area treatments in cultivable lands. Here the objective is to increase the productivity of the land for crops & horticulture through different soil and water conservation measures.

Farm bund is useful areas where the land is almost flat or used for agricultural purposes.
Farm bunds are erected across the slopes if not possible across the boundaries of the fields.
The top level of the bund should be even throughout so that required cross section is maintained irrespective of undulations of the plot. Grasses and trees can be grown for better stability and additional income for the farmer.



Earthen bund raised along the counter line is called Contour Bund. Waterways outlets either natural or artificially constructed are necessary for safe disposal of additional water from the field in a manner that minimizes erosion. Outlets are built to remove excess runoffs from the farm or Counter Bund.
Normally outlets are built at a height up to 1 foot from the ground level so as to stew some runoff.
Two types of outlets are used the Stone Outlets and the Pipe Outlets.
Drainage line treatemets
• Gully Plugs
• Nala Bunds
• Gabion Structures
• Loose Boulder Structures
• Masonry Structures

A series of structures is constructed along the drainage line these structures allow the surplus run off which has been considerably slowed down to accumulate and get stored along the entire drainage line.Which ensures entire groundwater recharge and creation of water banks.
Gully plugs are usually makeup of loose rocks of stones which are locally available.
Vegetation is necessary for the stabilization of the gully.
Earthen Gully Plugsare the earthen embankments which are built across the slopes situated at the bed of the gully. A spillway is provided at any one side of the embankment to bring the excess runoff at the non-erosive velocity
When gullies are prominent instead of small side gully plugs loose boulder structures with batter sometimes on both sides are constructed

Gabion Structures is similar to loose boulder structure but to increase stability the boulders are enmeshed in wire. Gabion structure is constructed in places where the foundation is not available for the construction of check dam or there is no possibility of a spillway to construct a nala bund.
Gabion Structures are silt controlled measures but through some innovation such as central concrete wall or plastering it can be converted into a water harvesting structure

NalaBundis an earthen bund of suitable dimension raised across nala or gully the purpose is to hold the run off in order to create a pond or water body on the upstream side of the bund
Nala bund is always constructed with the facility of spill way for draining surplus of rain water. These structures store rain water for a particular amount of time which helps recharging of ground water. Nala bunds also help to stabilize nalas,gully’s and streams

Check Damsare masonry structures which are constructed to impound surplus runoff, the stored water recharges the underground water this type of structures is constructed when in nala bund or in earthen structures cannot be need or a site where a spill way is not available

The objective of the different treatment is to meet the barren lands productive for forests pastures and agriculture.



If we start the work from the bottom and move up what are the disadvantages.
If we start the work from the bottom then as there is no such things as bunds and counter lines in the top there will be no resistance for the water flow and as it come with such velocity from the top that by the time the work at lower is completed it’ll will be destroyed.
Mythology
Once King Bhagirathi wanted to bring River Ganga from heaven but Ganga would fall from such a force that the earth would not be able to withstand the pressure so the Lord Shiva slowed the impact of the fall by taking it on this head on which his hair was tied. The water has to go through his hair and fall’s pressure was controlled.

i.e., pressure of rain water falling on the earth is to be reduced so that water would flow without eroding the soil

By doing watershed work form ridge to valley we do it the way the nature is intended. Running water is slowed down flowing water is made to walk and walking water is stopped. Spread around and made to go underground this is what that the rain water a nurturing nourishing cause of life peace and prosperity.
Summary
Treatment of the entire catchment area around the entire village to ensure conservation and regeneration of all its natural resources especially Water is called Watershed Development.

Watershed development must be run from ridge to valley basis.
Right from the top you dig continuous contour trenches and when you come down on waste lands you dig continuous contour bunds and on farm land you erect farm bunds along the drainage line of the rivers right from the top you do gully plugs when you come down nalabunds, gabion structures and check dams.

The idea is to control soil erosion and to control the flow of gushing water; water that is running we try to make it walk, walking water we stop and stop water we try to force it under ground. The idea is to trap harvest and store the rain water where ever it falls within the area itself. Since the speed of the rain water is controlled and the soil is not washed away the rivers doesn’t get flooded and silted.
Thus the water shed development is an answer to two problems that of drought and that of that of fly.
Earlier method of watershed development concentrated merely on the harvesting structures and ignored treating water shed as a home therefore this lead to soil erosion and siltation.

by Prasad MV

IRRIGATION

         IRRIGATION  
 TANK
 WELLS
 CANAL
 TANK IRRIGATION
 most feasible and widely practiced method
 Small in size built by raising bunds across seasonal streams.
 Excavated type in WB,ORISSA, BIHAR & mostly used for raising fishes beside irrigation
 Get silted up soon so need to be desilted
 High rate of evaporation and occupation of fertile land
 At many places dried up surface used for cultivation
 Most of the tanks are non perennial
 A tank is nothing but  a depression  formed on the surface of the earth by naturally or artificially to store the water by building a bund around or a side of the depression.
 If the tank is nearer or on the way of the stream of the river it is easy to store the water.
CONDITIONS FOR TANK IRRIGATION:
 1.Land should have an undulating relief feature so that depression could be available
 2. should have a hard layered rock and little percolation of water so that water can be retained for a long period
 3. nearness of the river course so that water can be easily filled in the depression
AREAS FULLFILLING THE ABOVE CONDITIONS:
 Karnataka , TN, AP, ORRISA, MAHARASHTRA have more area under tank irrigation.
 Most parts of peninsular india especially most areas of Tamilnadu and  Andhra Pradesh, eastern parts of karnataka, eastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra and a few parts in north india.
ADVANTAGES OF TANK IRRIGATION:
 1.Most of the tanks are natural and do not involve heavy cost for their construction.
 2.even an individual farmer can have his own tank.
 3.tanks are generally constructed on rocky bed and have longer life span.
 4.in many tanks fishing is also carried on. This supplements both the food resources and income of the farmer.
DISADVANTAGES OF TANK IRRIGATION:
 1.many tanks dry up during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is needed the most.
 2.silting of the tank bed is a serious problem and it requires desilting in regular intervals.
 3.evaporation loss is very high.
 4.some times it is difficult to take water from tank to the irrigation field because of the hard rock.




WELLS
- most widely distributed source of irrigation.
- water from underground so possible in areas of low rainfall where adequate amount of GW is present
within the reach of small farmer
- the great plains, deltaic region of Krishna, Godavari, narmada, kaveri, Mahanadi and tapti
- large tracts of peninsula holds little sub surface water
- in some parts of Haryana ,Rajasthan , Gujarat, Punjab ground water is saline so not suitable for irrigation
- 41 % of the net irrigated area
- WELL&TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION
- A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water.
- A tube well is a deeper well with a tube surrounding the peripheral from which water is lifted with the help of a pump set.
- CONDITIONS FOR WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION:
- 1.sufficient sweet ground water should be available
- 2.soft rock
-
- AREAS FULFILLING THE CONDITIONS:
- Large part of great plain, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the godhavari, the Krishna, and the Cauvery, parts of the narmada and the tapi valleys and the weathered layers of the deccan trap.
- ADVANTAGES OF WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION:
- 1.simplest and cheapest source of irrigation and the poor Indian farmer can easily afford it
- 2.well is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises
- 3.several chemicals such as nitrate, chloride, sulphate, etc. Are mixed in well water. They add to the fertility of soil when they reach the agricultural field along with well water
- 4.there is a limit to the extent of canal irrigation while a well can be dug at any convenient place
- DISADVANTAGES OF WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION:
- 1.only limited areas can be irrigated
- 2.the well may dry up and may be rendered useless for irrigation if excessive water is taken out of it
- 3.tubewells can draw a lot of ground water from its neighbouring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture
- 4. for tube-wells electricity or diesel needed.

CANAL
 principal source of irrigation
 40% of the net irrigated area
 Require an adequate source of water supply, allow relief and an extensive command area
 Inundation canals are taken out of river without any regulating system at their heads ( to use flood water)
 Perennial canals take off from perennial rivers with a weir system (to regulate flow of water)
 In great plains canals take off from barrages, while in peninsula  large dams and reservoirs necessary for taking off canals
 Half of the net canal irrigated area lie in UP, PUNJAB, HARYANA AND A.P
 CANAL IRRIGATION
 Canals are man-made channels for flow of water.
 CONDITIONS FOR CANAL IRRIGATION:
 1.areas of low and level relief so that water flow would be by the gravitation force
 2.deep soft rock layer so that canal excavation would be easy
 3.perennial source of water
 AREAS FULFILLING THE CONDITIONS:
 North plains of india especially the areas comprising Punjab; Haryana and uttar Pradesh  and the coastal and delta regions of the south india.
 ADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION:
 1.most of the canals provide perennial irrigation and supply water as and when needed.
 2.canals carry a lot of sediment brought down by the rivers. This sediment is deposited in the agricultural fields which adds to the fertility of soil.
 3.some of the canals are parts of multipurpose projects and, therefore, provide cheap source of irrigation.
 4.although the initial cost involved in canal irrigation is much higher, it is quite cheap in the long run.
 DISADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION:
 1.the canal water soaks into the ground and leads to the problem of water-logging along the canal route
 2.the marshy areas near the canals act as breeding grounds of mosquitoes which result in widespread diseases
 3.many canals over flow during rainy season and flood the surrounding areas.
 4.canal irrigation is suitable in plain areas only.


UTTAR PRADESH Upper and lower ganga canal, eastern Yamuna canal, sarda canal ramganga canal, betwa canal, agra canal
ANDHRA PRADESH Canal system taken off from Krishna, Godavari,Tungabhadra, dowlaiswaram anicut (Godavari delta), prakasam barrage(Krishna delta), penner canal,canals of nizamsagar,pochampad project, nagarjunsagar & Tungabhadra project (mainly irrigate rayalseema districts)
WEST BENGAL DVC (hooghly), mayurakshi,kangsabati
TAMIL NADU deltaic regions of tambraparni & kaveri, grand anicut, katalai high level canal, mettur canal system,lower bhawani project,manimuthar project(tambraparni)
BIHAR Eastern kosi canal, eastern gandak canal, son canal
RAJASTHAN Bikaner canal (satluj), ottu feeder(ghaggar), bhakra canal, Chambal project canals, rajasthan canal
M.P Chambal project , barna project, tawa project canal
KARNATKA Tungabhadra project canals, malprabha project, ghatprabha project,bhadra project, visvesaraya canal (kaveri)(krishnaarjunsagar dam)
MAHARASHTRA Mutha canal(khadakwasola reservoir),mula canal , upper Godavari canal, girna canal , nira canal, pravara canal,ghod and purna canal
ORISSA Canals of Mahanadi (hirakund project)
KERALA Malampuzha canal, periyar canal, pamba canal


OTHER SOURCES OF IRRIGATION -  irrigation from temporary dams called ahars & pynes, spring channels, direct lift from water channels.
*Great plains and east coastal lowlands have more area under irrigation than the uplands in the peninsular regions due to greater concentration of the sown area and availability of more surface and sub surface water.
NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002
 emphasis on integrated water resource development.
 Management for optimal and sustainable utilization of water.
 Creation of well developed information system.
 Water conservation, participatory approach on water management
- Avg annual water availability of country -1869 billion cubic metre(bcm)
- Of  which 1123 bcm usable of which 690 bcm surface water rest ground water
- In bhart nirman emphasis on extension renovation and modernization (ERM ) & repair renovation and restoration


Accelerated irrigation benefit programme
- To gave loan assistance to states to help in completion of major / medium irrigation project
- Central loan assistance scheme for surface minor  irrigation schemes of north eastern states and other hilly states
- 25 % project grant for non special states and 30% for special states, drought prone tribal areas including.
Hydro project -2
- With world bank assistance in 13 states
- To promote the sustainable and effective use of hydrological information system(HIS)

COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT
- to bridge the gap between irrigation potential created and utilized through micro level Infrastructure development for efficient water management and enhancement of agriculture production
- Assistance of 50:50 basis for construction activity and 75:25 basis for training activity
- Parcitipatory approach with water users association
- Minimum 10% contribution by the beneficiary in the cost of construction of field channels, reclamation of water logged area
- Flood management
- 45 mha flood prone area in the country
- By way of construction of embankment , drainage channels town protection works & providing raised platforms
- 100% central assistance to W.B ,Tripura, N.E states
- Flood management programme – flood control, river management drainage development ,flood proofing, anti sea erosion works
- A network of flood forcasting and warning system established by central water commission in major river basins for flood forcast
- Advisory council on artificial recharge of ground water
- Implementation of 5000 farmer’s participatory action research programme
- Organization of national ground water congress
- Institute of ground water augmentation award and national water award
- Preparation of policy on use of ground water by industries
- FPARP technologies –micro irrigation system (drip and sprinkler), water conservation(jalkund, storage tanks, check dams, recharging wells), crop diversification, system of rice intensification (SRI), in-situ soil moisture conservation, micro nutrient management
- Ministryof water resources constituted bhoomijal  samvardhan  puraskars- cash award of 1 lkh.
              National water resource council
- Prime minister chairman, union minister of water resources vice chairman ,chief ministers of all states secretary (ministry of water resources)
Central water commission – 3 technical wings
- Design and research wing
- Water planning and project wing
- River management wing
• 13 regional organizations to carry out techno-economic appraisal and economic aspects of irrigation, flood control and multipurpose project proposed by state government
• All work related to hydrological data
• Flood forcasting system
• To advise on basin wise development of water resources
• To advise and assist survey and investigate on designs and schemes on development of river valleys in respect of power generation , irrigation, flood management , environmental management, resettlement and rehabilitation, soil conservation, anti water logging measures, reclamation of alkaline and saline soils, drainage and drinking water supply
• To impart training on various aspects of water resource development
• Dam safety studies, promotion of modern data collection techniques such as remote sensing assessment of water erosion problems
Central soil and material research station
- Soil mechanics, rock mechanics, construction materials
- Soil dynamics, geotextile, soil chemistry, rock fill technology, drilling technology
Central water and power research station
- Khadakwasla,  pune
- Hydraulic research
- River engineering, reservoir and appurtenant structures, coastal and offshore engineering, shiop hydrodynamics, hydraulic machinery, earth sciences, mathematic modeling
Central ground water board
- Disseminate technologies for scientific and sustainable development and management of india;s ground water resource including monitoring , assessment, exploration & augmentation
- RGI scheme provide training, setting up laboratories , r & d studies
Farraka barrage project
- For preservation and management of kolkata port(bhagirathi  hoogly  river system)
Bansagar control board
- On sone river
- M.P , U.P , bihar involved
Ganga flood control commission
- Headquartered at patna
Upper Yamuna board
- MoU between H.P, Haryana, U.P, rajasthan and nct delhi
- Allocation of available flow and also maintain the return flow
- Three storage project- renuka dam, Krishna dam, lakhwar vyas project
National water development agency
- National perspective plan (NPP) under national common minimum programme
- Transferring water from water surplus basin to water deficit basin by interlinking of rivers
 two components
- 1. Himalya water development component
- 2 .peninsular rivers development component
- Main river links- ken betwa link (M.P, U.P involved)
- Parbati- kali sindh- Chambal link(M.P , rajasthan involved)
- PAR-TAPI NARMADA LINK and damangana – panjal link (gujrat Maharashtra involved)
- Godavari- Krishna link (andhrapradesh involved)
- Mahanadi – Godavari- Krishna- pennar kaveri- gundar link system -7 states involved

                                                                                                 
REF. – 1. ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA BY SHARMA & COUTINHO.
2. INDIA 2013.
R.DHARMENDRA,
VIBHOR BACHCHAN

CROPS CROPPING PATTERNS

MAJOR CROPS CROPPING PATTERNS IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE COUNTRY
For paper-IV general studies-III.
Because of the diversities in relief, soils and climate in India we can produce almost all the varieties of crops.  We can divide the major crops in India into the following categories.
MAJOR CROPS:
1. Food crops:  rice, wheat, maize, millets-jowar,bajra, ragi; pulses-gram, tur(arhar)
2.Cash crops : cotton,jute,sugarcane,tobacco,oilseed,groundnut,linseed,sesame,castorseed,rapeseed,mustard.
3.Plantation crops:tea,coffee,spices-petter,cardamom,chillies,ginger,turmeric,coconut,arecanut,and rubber.
4.Horticulture: fruits-apple,peach,pear,apricot,almond,strawberry,walnut,mango,banana,citrus fruits, vegetables.
CROPPING PATTERN:
This is the pattern of crops for a given piece of land, over the period. It means in a given piece of land we cannot cultivate same kind of crop throughout the year because some factors like seasonal changes, soil condition and some other factors would not allow the crop to survive, otherwise the crop would not give much profit. So depending upon the physiographic conditions, climatic condition, economic condition, scientific conditions and political conditions we would change different variety of crops in a given piece of land over the period this is called cropping pattern.
                                          MAJOR CROPS+ CROPPING PATTERN:
FOOD CROPS:
RICE:
We all know that for paddy cultivation there are three basic requirements
1.plenty of water.
2.plenty of sunshine.
3.fertile alluvial soil.
Rice is grown almost throughout the year in hot and humid regions of eastern and southern parts of India because most of the eastern and southern regions are fulfilling the above said conditions. In those areas yearly two to three crops of rice is not uncommon. For example in the Cauvery delta regions of Tamil Nadu paddy is cultivated thrice in a year viz. Samba crop for 5 to 6 months again Kuruvai crop for 3 to 4 months again Thaladi crop for remaining period(Thaladi= the paddy grown in the field ploughed with the stumps of the previous harvest-this is for making the soil fertile ). In the same way the other regions of eastern and southern part of the India paddy has been growing almost throughout the year. Some districts in west Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Tamil Nadu were the areas .
But in the northern and hilly parts of the country, where the winter is very cold so we cannot get the high temperature which needed for the paddy cultivation so in that areas only one crop of paddy is possible . For example some districts in the Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Assam and a few districts in the western sides of south western states like Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
And some areas like eastern Rajasthan, western Punjab and western Haryana paddy cultivation is done specially with the help of the irrigation.
WHEAT:
Standard conditions for wheat growth:
1. Low to moderate temperature around
2. Moderate rainfall around
3. Fertile alluvial soil.
Wheat is mostly sown in the beginning of winter and is harvested in the beginning of summer.
The time of sowing and harvesting differs in different regions due to climatic variations.
The sowing of wheat crops normally begins in the September-October and harvesting has been done in January-February in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and west Bengal regions. The reason is thatin the ripening stage of the wheat there should be very less moisture in the atmosphere and the temperature should rise gradually. This rise in temperature would happen with the travelling of the sun from the tropic of Capricorn to the tropic of cancer.
In the same way the sowing of wheat begins in the October-November and harvested in February-march in the areas of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. And in the regions of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir the sowing and harvesting has been done in November-December and March-April respectively.
MAIZE:
Conditions for the maize:
1.Rainfall should be 50-100cm and it cannot be grown in areas of more than 100cm.
2. The crop usually grows well under temperature varying from 21-27 degree Celsius.
3. Frost is injurious to maize so it requires four and a half frost free months in a year.
4. Fertile alluvial and red loam soil is suitable for maize.
Maize is mainly a Kharif crop which is sown just before the onset of the monsoon and harvested after retreat of the monsoon.
The cultivation of maize in India is characterised by inter-culture i.e. it is produced along with pulses, oil seeds and vegetables.
Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh are the main maize producing states in India.
In Tamil Nadu it is a Rabi crop and is sown a few weeks before the onset of winter rainy season in September and October. This is because of Tamil Nadu is getting good rain fall in this period(north-east monsoon).
MILLETS:
Millets are short duration (3-4 months) warm weather grasses grown in those areas where the main crops like rice and wheat cannot be grown successfully.
Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are some important millets.
Jowar(sorghum):
Next to rice and wheat jowar is the third most important food crop both with respect to area and production.
Conditions for growth:
1. It is grown both as kharif and rabi crop. As a kharif crop temperature between 26-33 degree Celsius is good. As a rabi crop temperature should not go below 16 degree Celsius.
2. Rain fall needs more than 30cm but should not exceed 100cm.
3. Clayey deep regur and alluvium are best suited soils.
Usually it has been cultivated in the dry and irrigation is not used areas.
Maharashtra produces more than 50 per cent of the total jowar production of India. In the Maharashtra plateau region two crops of jowar is raised in a year. In some districts of southern Pune as much as 80 per cent of the area is devoted for the jowar cultivation. The north-eastern parts of the Karnataka plateau is also mostly devoted for the jowar. Some dry districts in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu also producing the jowar. Tamil Nadu has the distinction of giving the highest yield per hectare comparing with other states.
Rajasthan’s dry climate also provides favourable condition for the production of jowar.
Bajra :
It is also a dry crop.
1.Rainfall 40-50cm.
2. Temperature 25-30 degree Celsius.
3. Can be grown on poor light sandy soils, black and red soils.
It is a kharif crop which is sown between May and September and harvested between October and February. It is sown either as a pure or mixed crop with cotton, jowar, and ragi. Rajasthan is the largest producer of bajra in India. Maharashtra is the second largest producer of bajra where it is mainly grown in the central plateau having poor soils and dry climate. Over 80 per cent of India’s bajra comes from Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarath, Uttar Pradesh andHaryana.
Ragi:
This is another important millet mainly grown in drier parts of south India.
Conditions for well growth:
1.Rainfall 50-100cm
2. Temperature 20-30 degree Celsius.
3. It is raised on red, light black and sandy looms.
It is a kharif crop which is sown between May and August and harvested between September and January. Karnataka is the largest producer of ragi in India. Tamil Nadu is the second largest producer of ragi but lags far behind Karnataka. Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh are some other important producers of ragi.
PULSES:
Pulses include a number of crops which are mostly leguminous and provide much needed vegetable proteins to largely vegetarian population in India. Gram and tur(arhar ) are most important pulses.
Gram:
Gram is the most important of all the pulses.
Conditions for well growth:
1. Mild cool temperature 20-25 degree Celsius.
2. Rainfall 40-50 cm.
3. It grows well in loamy soils.
It is a rabi crop, which is sown between September and November and is harvested between February and April. It is cultivated as pure or mixed with wheat, barley, linseed or mustard.
Although gram is cultivated in several parts of the country, most of the gram comes from Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, and Maharashtra. These 5 states produces 90 per cent of gram of India.
Tur or arhar (pigeon pea or red gram):
This is the second most important millet of India. It is chiefly grown as kharif crop but in area of mild winter it is grown as rabi crop also. It is grown as a dry crop mixed with other kharif crops like jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, cotton, groundnut, etc. and is seldom grown as a single crop. Its conditions of growth are more or less similar to those of other pulses and millets.
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarath, and Karnataka are the chief producing states.
CASH CROPS:
COTTON:
Conditions of growth:
1. Uniformly high temperature (21-30).
2.Rainfall normal (50-100cm)
3. Black cotton soil.
Frost is the number one enemy of the cotton plant and it is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.
Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature. Its time of sowing and harvesting differs in different parts of the country depending upon the climatic conditions. In Punjab and Haryana, it is sown in april- may and is harvested in December- January, that is before the winter frost can damage the crop. In the peninsular part of India, it is sown upto October and harvested between January and may because there is no danger of winter frost in these areas. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown both as kharif and rabi crop. Here the rainfall occurs after September and cotton is sown in October. Most of the crop is grown mixed with other kharif crops such as maize, jowar, ragi, sesamum, castor, ground nut and some vegetables.
Cotton grows well in the deep black soils of the Deccan and Malwa plateau and those in Gujarat.  About two -third cotton in India is produced by four major states viz. Punjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.
Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil. Therefore regular application of manures and fertilizers to the soil is very necessary.
JUTE:
1.Requires high temperature (24-35)degree
2. Requires heavy rainfall 120-150cm.
3. Grow well in light sandy or claying loams.
Jute is generally sown in February on lowlands and in march-may in uplands. The harvesting period generally starts in July and continues till October. Because in the time of harvesting we need more water for the retting process (processing of the jute barks in water). Jute rapidly exhausts the fertility of the soil. So in the delta regions of the Hoogly river it grows well because the hoogly river would made the newallluvium depositsoftenly over the older layer.
In India 98 per cent of the jute is produced in four states, west Bengal, Bihar, Assam, and Odisha.
West Bengal is the undisputed king of jute production in India accounting for about 70 per cent of the production. Following this Bihar is the second largest producer but lagging far behind west Bengal.
SUGARCANE:
Conditions of growth:
It  is a long duration crop and requires 10 to 15 and even 18 months to mature, depending upon the geographical conditions. It requires hot and humid climate.
1.temperature 21-27 degree.
2.rainfall 75-150 cm. Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar content and deficiency in rainfall produces fibrous  crop.
3.in fact, sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain moisture. But deep rich loamy soils are ideal for its growth.
On the basis of above said conditions following are the three belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified.
1.The satluj-ganga plain from Punjab to bihar.
2.the black soil belt from Maharashtra to tamilnadu along the eastern slopes of the western ghats.
3.coastal Andhra and the Krishna valley.
In the northern plain of india, the summer temperatures ranging from 30 to 35 degree hamper the growth of the cane. In the winter months of December and January the sugarcane crop is likely to be damaged by excessively cold weather accompanied by frost. Consequently the yield per hectare is low. In south inidia, on the other hand reasonably high temperature in the summer and frost free winter, coupled with the maritime winds in the coastal areas are some of the climatic factors which are extremely beneficial to this crop. But due to some economical and political conditions from the older days more sugars are cultivated in north india to compare with south india. But nowadays it has been changing towards the south india.
Uttar Pradesh is the highest producer of sugar cane in india followed by Maharashtra and tamilnadu.
TOBACCO:
It is a crop of tropical and sub tropical region.
1.it can the temperature varying from 16-35 degree Celsius.
2.rainfall normally 100cm.
3.well drained friable sandy loams, not too rich in organic matter but rich in mineral salts.
In fact, soil rather than climate is the determining factor for its geographical distribution. Further it can be grown from low lying flat plains upto a height of 1800m
Although tobacco is grown in as many as 15 states of india only gujarath and Andhra Pradesh are producing more tobacco.
OILSEEDS:
India has the largest area and production of oilseeds in the world. Five major oil seeds are:
1.Ground nut, 2.sesamum, 3.rapeseed and mustard, 4.linseed, 5. Castor seed.
Ground nut:
1.it requires 20-30 degree Celsius temperature.
2.rainfall 50-75 cm.
3.enemies= frost, prolonged drought, continuous rain, stagnant water.
4.well drained light sandy loams, red, yellow and black cotton soils.
Around 90 per cent of the ground nut is produced as the kharif crop. But it can be grown both as kharif and rabi crop. It serves as an important rotation crop because it synthesizes atmospheric nitrogen and increases soil fertility.
Andhra Pradesh, tamilndau, gujarath are the three main producers of ground nut in india.  Other some states also producing the ground nut in small quantities.
Sesamum:
1.it requires 21-23 degree temperature.
2.45-50cm rainfall.
3.well drained light loamy soils.
It is a rainfed crop it is grown as kharif crop in north india and rabi crop in south india.
Sesamum is grown in almost all parts of the country but odisha, rajasthan, west Bengal, Maharashtra, gujarath,and Madhya Pradesh are the main producers.
Rapeseed and mustard:
Like wheat and gram, they thrive only in cool climate of the satluj-ganga plain and very small quantity is grown in peninsular india. They are mainly grown as rabi crop in pure or mixed with wheat,gram,and barley.
Rajasthan and uttar Pradesh are the two major producers of the rapeseed and mustard. Haryana and Madhya Pradesh coming next in the list.
LINSEED:
1.it is a cool dry crop, 20 degree Celsius temperature is ideal.
2.rainfall of 75 cm is enough.
3.clay loams, deep black  soils and alluvial soils are best suited.
It is a rabi  crop which is sown in October –november and harvested in march- april.
Madhya Pradesh, uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra are the three main producers of linseed in india.
CASTOR SEED:
1.it grows well in 20-25 degree Celsius temperature areas.
2.50-57cm rainfall is ideal.
3.in peninsular india it grows on red sandy loams and in satluj-ganga plain it grows in light alluvial soil.
Almost the whole area of castor seed production is rainfed. It is a kharif crop in the north and a rabi crop in the south.
Gujarath, Andhra Pradesh, and rajashtan are the largest producers of castor seed in india.
PLANTATION CROPS:
Unlike other crops, they are not annual crops and take 3-5 years to bear fruit after they are sown. But once they start bearing fruit, they continue to do so for 35-40 years. They require heavy initial capital investment and high level technology for their growth and processing. Tea, coffee and rubber are the principal plantation crops but spices are also included in this category.
TEA:
1.temperature for its growth is 20-30 degree Celsius and temperatures above 35 degree and below 10 degree is harmful for the bush.
2.it requires 150-300cm annual rainfall.
3.high humidity, heavy dew and morning fog favour the rapid development of young leaves.
4.tea is shade loving plant and develops more vigorously when planted along with shady trees.
5 it grow well in well drained, deep friable loams.
6.although tea requires heavy rainfall for its growth, stagnant water is injurious to its roots. It is therefore, grown on the hill slopes.
7.most of the tea plantations in india are found at elevations varying from 600 to 1800m above the sea level.
Tea in india is highly concentrated in few selected areas.
1.north eastern india:
It is more are less a triangular area in assam and west Bengal. 75 per cent tea produced in india is coming from here. In assam main tea producing belts are Brahmaputra valley and surma valley. In west Bengal it is in the Duars and Darjeeling.
2.southindia:
In south india tea is produced in nilgiri, cardamom,palani and anaimalai in tamilnadu, kerala and Karnataka. This region accounts for 22 per cent of tea production in india. In south indiatamilnadu is the largest producer of tea accounting for over 14 percent of total tea production in india.
3.north west india:
Some of tea is produced in dehra dun, almora and garhwal districts of uttar Pradesh and kangra valley and mandi districts of himachal Pradesh.
COFFEE:
1.it grows in hot and humid climate, temperature varying from 15-28 degree is good. Temperature above 30 degree is harmful. And also it does not tolerate frost, snowfall.
2.rainfall from 150-250cm. Is good. Stagnant water is harmful.
3.dry weather is necessary at the time of ripening.
4.well drained, rich friable loams containing good deal of humus and minerals like iron and calcium are ideal.
Northern and eastern aspects of slopes are preferred as they are less exposed to strong afternoon sun and the south west monsoon winds. The restricted agro climatic conditions have forced the coffee plantations to confine themselves to small area in south india comprising hill areas around nilgiris. Almost the entire production is shared by three states namely Karnataka, kerala, tamilnadu. Karnataka is the leading producer in india.
RUBBER:
1.it requires hot and humid climate.with temperature of 25-35degree Celsius. And annual rainfall of about 300cm.
2.dry spell and low temperature is harmful. Daily rainfall followed by strong sun is very useful.
3.deep well drained loamy soils on the hill slopes at elevation ranging from 300-450 m  above sea level is best condition. There is no rubber tree found above 700m elevation, because the yield will reduce.
Kerala is the largest producer of rubber followed by tamilnadu and Karnataka.
SPICES:
Pepper, cordomum, chillies, turmeric and ginger are some of the important spices produced in india.
Pepper:
1.it is a tropical crop. It requires a minimum of 10 degree and maximum of 30 degree Celsius.
2.200-300cm rainfall helps its growth.
3.the plant progresses as a vine and needs support of other trees for its growth.
4.it thrives well on deep, well drained loamysoil.
5.kerala, Karnataka and tamilnadu are concentrated by the crop.
Cardamom:
1.it grows well on high heat and humidity with temperature ranging from 15 degree to 32 degree Celsius.
2.rainfall 150-300cm.
3.well drained forest loams, deep red and laterite soils are best suited.
4.it is a shade loving plant and is grown under shade-trees.
5.the entire production comes from three states viz. Kerala, Karnataka and tamilnadu and these states contributes 53, 42, 5 percent respectively.
Chillies:
1.it requires temperatures ranging from 10 to 30 degree Celsius.
2.average rainfall of 60-125cm is enough.
3.it can be grown in wide variety of soils including black cotton soil, and different type of loamy soils.
4.andhra Pradesh is the leading producer of chillies in india. Which is followed by Maharashtra and odisha.
Ginger:
1.it is grown in tropical and sub-tropical climates.10 to 25 degree Celsius temperature is good.
2.125-250cm rainfall is required.
3.well drained sandy clayey or red loams and laterite are best suited soils.
4.kerala is the largest producer of ginger in india. Other main states are Meghalaya, Sikkim, odisha, Mizoram and west Bengal.
Turmeric:
1.it requires tropical climate.
2.well drained sandy and clayey loams, medium black, red or alluvial soils for its growth.
3.andhra Pradesh is the largest producer in india. Followed by Karnataka and tamilnadu.
HORTICULTURE:
Horticulture is the section of agriculture in which fruits and vegetables are grown. Immense agro climatic diversity enables india to grow a large variety of horticulture crops.
CASHEWNUT:
Cashew requires average temperature between 16-25 degree Celsius and a wide range of rainfall from 50 to 350 cm. It grows well on laterite soils on the west coast and on sandy soils on the east coast. kerala,  tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh are the major producers. Some of the cashew is also grown in Maharashtra and goa.
MANGO:
It is the native of monsoon lands and is grown in areas with temperature of 20-30 degree Celsius and rainfall 75 to 250cms. It can grow in almost all soils of india but prefers rich clayey loams. Uttar Pradesh, bihar, Andhra Pradesh, west Bengal, Orissa, kerala, tamilnadu, Maharashtra, gujarath and Karnataka are its main producers.
APPLE:
Apple is temperate fruit crop. It requires average temperature of 21-4 degree Celsius and rainfall of 100-125cm. The orchard localities should be free from hail storms and frost. These conditions are found on hill slopes at altitudes ranging from 1500-2700m above the sea level. Loamy soils, rich in organic matter and having good drainage are most suitable for apple cultivation. Soil should be free from hard sub strata and water logging.
The main areas of apple production are kullu and shimla in himachal Pradesh, the Kashmir valley and hilly areas of western uttar Pradesh.
BANANA:
Banana is primarily a tropical and sub tropical crop, requiring  average temperature of 20-30 degree Celsius. Rainfall should be fairly above 150cm. The banan tree grows well in rich, well drained soil with ample moisture and humus.
Although banana growing is spread all over india, the peninsular inidia provides ideal conditions for its cultivation. Tamil nadu and Maharashtra are the two leading producers of banana in india.
ORANGE:
most of the orange orchads are rainfed and are located at heights from 600 to 1500m. well drained, even textured sandy loams which permit root penetration upto 2-4 metres are best for orange cultivation. Although orange is grown in almost all the states, its cultivation is more prominently concentrated in the hilly regions of western uttar Pradesh, Darjeeling in west Bengal, kangra valley in himachal Pradesh, khasi and jaintia hills in Meghalaya. Hyderabad and Aurangabad in Andhra Pradesh, kodagu district of Karnataka,  waynad of kerala, nilgiri district of tamilnadu and Nagpur and pune districts of Maharashtra.
GRAPES:
Grapes is a sub tropical plant and requires long summer, short sharp winter, a moderately fertile well drained soil, relatively low water supply during growing period and a bright sunshine during mature stage. In north india, the plant gives only one crop during summer but in south india the plant grows throughout the year and yields two crops a year.
Uttar Pradesh,himachal Pradesh, jammu and Kashmir and Punjab in the north and Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, tamilnadu and Karnataka in the south are grapes producing states.
VEGETABLES:
India also grow a large variety of vegetables. The important vegetables are potato, cauliflower, cabbage, cucumber, carrot, brinjal, mushroom, pumpkin,  gourd, tomato etc.
Most of the vegetables are short duration crops as a result of which two to three crops are raised from the same piece of land in one year. Most of the vegetables are grown around urban areas where they find ready market for their sale.
R.DHARMENDRA,
a. i) India a comprehensive geography D.R.Khullar.
ii)Indian physical geography-TMG publication Majid Hussain.
Iii) Tamil Nadu state board text book-social science.

AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

 AGRICULTURE AND RURAL  DEVELOPMENT(schemes and bills)
India is an agrarian economy as 70% of its population depends on it but now its contribution to the GDP decreases (i.e 14%).during the 1st five year plan India follows industrial growth as a “Prime moving  force” of the economy.but after the 7th plan agrarian sector becomes the “prime moving force”.
*Even united nations change their mentality that agrarian economy is not a backward economy.


Ministry of rural development- The vision and mission of the Ministry is sustainable and inclusive growth of rural India through a multipronged strategy for eradication of poverty by increasing livelihoods opportunities, providing social safety net and developing infrastructure for growth.
1.Department of Drinking Water & Supply-To provide every rural person with adequate safe water for drinking, cooking and other domestic basic needs on a sustainable basis.
1.National rural drinking water programme (NRDWM)(Rajiv Gandhi drinking water mission)
• By 2017,Ensure that at least 50% of rural households are provided with piped water supply & at least 35% of rural households have piped water supply with a household connection. (12th five year plan).
• by 2022, every rural person in the country will have access to 70 lpcd within their household premises.

2.NIRMAL BHARAT ABHIYAN(NBA)
Motivate communities and Panchayati Raj Institutions to promote sustainable sanitation facilities through awareness creation and health education.
       MAJOR COMPONENTS ARE-
Construction of Individual Household Latrines.
Rural Sanitary Marts and Production.
Community Sanitary Complex.
Institutional Toilets- School and Anganwadi toilets.
Solid and Liquid Waste Management.
3.WATER SECURITY PILOT PROJECTS are launched through convergence with MNREGA and other watershed programmes
2.Department of Land Resources-major schemes are-
1.Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP)- is a modified programme of erstwhile Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP), Desert Development Programme (DDP) and Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWDP) of the Department of Land Resources.
Main motive is to restore the ecological balance by harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil, vegetative cover and water.
2. National Land Records Modernization Programme (NLRMP)-Implementing two schemes-
• Computerisation of Land Records (CLR).
• Strengthening of Revenue Administration and Updating of Land Records (SRA&ULR).
3. Neeranchal - World Bank assisted Watershed Management Programme
• Neeranchal project has been conceived to strengthen implementation of IWMP giving focus to areas of Planning, Capacity Building, Improved Production Technology, Monitoring& Evaluation.
• Neeranchal will focus on rainfed areas of 8 States (A.P, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, M.P., Maharashtra, Odisha and Rajasthan) consists of 68% of (58 m.ha.) country’s net rainfed agriculture area.
4.National Mission on Bio-Diesel - Committee on Development of Bio-fuels set-up by the Planning Commission in July, 2002. The objectives of the programmes is to bring unutilzed wasteland in to productive use by promotion of Jatropha and Pongamia Plantation and reduce  country’s dependence on imported petroleum diesel.

3.Department of Rural Development-centre is working with state government to poverty reduction, employment generation, rural infrastructure habitant development, provision of basic minimum services.
Schemes.
1.PradhanMantri Gram SadakYojana-launced in December 2000,a fully funded Centrally Sponsored Scheme to provide all weather road connectivity in rural areas of the country.
Under the survey conducted by state government,1.67 lakh Unconnected Habitations are eligible for coverage under the programme.
2.Swarnjayanti Gram SwarozgarYojana-is to bring the assisted poor families (Swarozgaries) above the Poverty Line with the help of self help groups(SHGs).As per the latest (1999-2000) estimates of the Planning Commission, the poverty line in terms of per capita consumption expenditure per month in the rural areas varies from Rs.262.94 in Andhra Pradesh to Rs.367.45 in Himachal Pradesh
3.Indira AawasYojna-primarily to help construction/upgradation of dwelling units of members of below poverty line non-SC/ST or SC/ST rural households by providing them a lump sum financial assistance.
4.Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act-2005- To provide 100 days guaranteed wage employment to a household in the rural areas.
5.National Social Assistance Programme- providing social assistance benefit to the aged, the BPL households in the case of death of the primary breadwinner and for maternity.Itcomprises the National Old Age Pension Scheme (NOAPS), National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS) and National Maternity Benefit Scheme (NMBS).
6.Provision of Urban Amenities in Rural Areas(PURA)- development of compact areas around a potential growth centre in a Panchayat through Public Private Partnership (PPP) by  providing livelihood opportunities and urban amenities to improve the quality of life in rural areas.
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1.DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COOPERATION-
1.Kisaan SMS Portal- The SMSs will get transmitted only to the farmers within the territorial jurisdiction of an officer, scientist or experts for the crops or agricultural practice that such a farmer might have opted for.
2.Minimum Support Prices- Acting on the recommendations of the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices, the Government has fixed Minimum Support Prices (MSPs) for the Agricultural Year (July-June) 2013-14.
3.Draft Guidelines for setting up Automatic Weather Stations- setting up Automatic Weather Stations (AWSs) and Automatic Rain Gauge (ARGs) & their accreditation, standardization, validation and quality management of weather data.
4.Green Revolution in Eastern India -Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh and West Bengal have substantially increased their contribution to rice production.Therefore for the further increment of their growth government allocated 1000crore in 2013-14.
5.Thrust to FPOs- Farmer Producer Organizations (FPO), including Farmer Producer Companies (FPC), have emerged as aggregators of farm produce and link farmers directly to markets.
6.PilotProgramme on Nutri-Farms- introducing new crop varieties that are rich in micro-nutrients such as iron-rich bajra, protein-rich maize and zinc-rich wheat, is being launched.
2. Department of Agricultural Research and Education(DARE)-established in 1973
• DARE provides the necessary government linkages for the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
• Apart from ICAR the Department of Agricultural Research and Education has one more autonomous body, viz. the Central Agricultural University, Imphal under its administrative control. The Central University, established in 1993, has its jurisdiction over the Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim and Tripura, and is wholly financed by the Government of India.
3. Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying &fisheries(DADF)-
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY-
• to increase & upgrade the production & quality of animal breeding and poultry system.
• provide proper health care of livestock through proper diagnosis of diseases, timely vaccination and rational treatment for optimizing livestock production.
• The Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Poultry Development implemented by the Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries (DADF) has 3 components namely (i) Assistance to State Poultry Farms, (ii) Rural Backyard Poultry Development and (iii) Poultry Estates (new component).
DAIRY DEVELOPMENT-
• To increase the per capita availability of milk, OPERATION FLOOD was started in which 13.9 million farmers have been brought under the ambit of 1,33,349 village level dairy cooperative societies.
• DADF main focus in on non floodarea(i.e area not coming under operation flood) to create a corporative infrastructure and revitalization of seek dairy cooperatives.
• Main schemes under Dairy development by DADF are-
 Intensive Dairy Development Programme (IDDP)
 Strengthening infrastructure for quality and clean milk production
 Assistance to Cooperatives
 Dairy Venture Capital Fund.
FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT-under this varies schemes are implemented by the centre for the development of marine fisheries and aquaculture and also the schemes for the welfare of the fishermen.
4. Department of Food Processing Industries-established in 1988
• MEGA FOOD PARKS- providing a mechanism to link agricultural production to the market by bringing together farmers, processors and retailers so as to ensure maximizing value addition, minimizing wastages, increasing farmers’ income and creating employment opportunities  particularly in rural sector.
• COLD CHAINS-to provide pre- cooling facility at production sites,reefer vans and value added centres so as to reduce wastage and increase quality as well as quantity.
• MODERNIZATION OF ABATTOIRS- Modernization of existing Abattoirs with a view to ensure scientifichygienic slaughtering of the animals and supply of quality meat and meat products.(work under PPP mode)
• Quality and Food Safety- Due to competition in global market ,Total Quality Management (TQM) such as quality control, quality system and quality assuranceimplementation should be done on large scale.
• National Mission on Food Processing(NMFP)- decentralization of implementation of food processing related schemes for ensuring substantial participation of State/ UT Governments. It comes under the central sponsored schemes(major implementation of 11th plan was embedded in 12th NMFP).

BILLS PASSED IN GOVERNMENT  REGARDING AGRICULTURE & RURAL DEVELOPMENT
1.THE NATIONAL FOOD SECURITY BILL 2013
2. The National Rural Employment Guarantee (Amendment) Bill, 2009
3. The Legal Metrology Bil,2008-This Bill standardizes the units for measurement to be used in India. It specifies the SI system (metre, kilogram etc.) to be used. It regulates the manufacture, sale and use of standard weights and measures.
4. The Essential Commodities (Amendment and Validation) Bill, 2009-the price paid by the centre to sugar mills for levy sugar is based on “fair and remunerative price”. But if state governments fix a state advisory price (SAP) higher than FRP, then they would have to pay the difference to sugarcane farmers.
5. The Prevention and Control of Infectious and Contagious Diseases in Animals Bill, 2005-
• prevent, control and eradicate infectious diseases affecting animals.
• prevent the spread of such disease from one state to another.
• fulfill requirements of the International Animal Health Code.
6.The Sugar Development Fund(Amendment)Bill,2008
7. The Warehousing (Development and Regulation) Bill, 2005
• The Warehousing (Development and Regulation) Bill, 2005 seeks to establish WRs(warehouse receipt)as negotiable instruments, and outlines the necessary terms and provisions.
• Bill establishes a Warehouse Development and Regulatory Authority (WDRA) to regulate the WR system.
  8. The National Rural Employment Guarantee (Extension To Jammu and Kashmir) Bill, 2007-This Bill provides for the extension of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005, to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
9. The National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (Amendment) Bill, 2007
10. The Food Safety and Standards Bill, 2005-consolidates eight laws governing the food sector and establishes the Food Safety and Standards Authority (FSSA) to regulate the sector.
11.The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Bill, 2013-introduced in loksabha in 2011.and this bill was lapsed with two bills which were introduced in 2007 i.e The Land Acquisition Bill 2007 & The Land Rehabilitation And Resettlement Bill 2007.
AnamSingla