NIOS Culture Synopsis

1. CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION
• A human-made environment which includes all the material and non- material products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to the next,
• ‘Cult or cultus’ meaning tilling or cultivating or refining and worship.
• Three words came from this root ‘Kri;
 prakriti’ (basic matter or condition),
 ‘Sanskriti’ (refined matter or condition)
 ‘vikriti’ (modified or decayed matter or condition),
Now,
‘Civilization’ means having better ways of living and sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. ‘Culture’ refers to the inner being, a refinement of head and heart.

Sources of Culture:
• Many things from our ancestors,
• We continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those already existent,
• Give up some, which we don’t consider useful,

Some treasures of Indian Cultural heritage
• BAUDHAYAN, ARYABHATTA, BHASKARACHARYA in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology;
• KANAD and VARAHMIHIR in the field of Physics;
• NAGARJUNA in the field of Chemistry,
• SUSRUTA and CHARAK in the field of Medicines,
• PATANJALI in the field of Yoga,
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE,
• Culture is learned and acquired
• Culture is shared by a group of people
• Culture is cumulative
• Culture change
• Culture is dynamic
• Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns
• Culture is diverse separate but interdependent
• Culture is ideational,
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE
• It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human beings are creators of culture and, at the same time, culture is what makes us human.
• As the world is becoming more and more global and we coexist on a more global level we can’t just think there’s only one right way of living or that any one is valid.
• The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of cultures and beliefs necessary.
• The best thing we can do is: Get to know other cultures, while also getting to know our own.
• The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked
• The values of love, tolerance and peace.



2. INDIAN CULTURE
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CULTURE
• The distinctive features with uniqueness,
Continuity
• Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads of continuity can be traced throughout
• The pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very different from that of a HARAPPAN house.
• The worship of Mother Goddess and PASHUPATI
• Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and many other traditions continue to be followed even today.
• It has kept on changing, whereas the basic spirit of our culture continued.
Change
• Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC
• Religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
• The thread of basic philosophy of Indian culture continued and still persists.
Variety and Unity
• Indian culture, over the last three millennia, has successfully, but quietly, observed the best assimilable parts from other religions and cultures, from time to time and integrated them into itself.
• People belonging to eight great religions of the world co-exist here in a harmonious manner.
• The vastness of the country and variation in its physical and climatic features is an obvious reason for the variety.
• The second important reason for the variety in our culture is the intermingling among various ethnic groups.
• Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India, settled here and intermixed with the local population.

• India through the ages has shown a remarkable capacity for assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the variety and richness of our culture.
• Exchange of culture within India
 Travel from one part of the country to another for trade or pilgrimage.
 Joined together through conquests or by alliance.
 Military campaigns too took people from one place to another.
 Such contacts have led to the development of commonness in Indian culture
 Another unifying factor is climate: the system of monsoons
 Agriculture remains the main occupation
 Differences in physical features have affected the food habits, dress, houses and economic activities
 The variety in physical features and climate of India has thus led to the development of a variety of cultures in different regions
 People started practicing agriculture they settled down.
• This settled life led to community development and growth of towns, which needed rules and regulations.
 SABHAS and SAMITIS
 Age of MAHAJANAPADAS
 Emperors exercising absolute powers,
 The British Empire
 Today we are sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic and a uniform system of government prevails over the length and breadth of the country.
Secular Outlook
• Right to freedom of religion
In the Western context development of secularism meant complete separation of the church and the state. In India secularism is taken as a more positive concept to cope with the complex social structure in the country with a view to protecting the interests of all, particularly the minorities. But this has become problem too.
Universalism
 It has protested against the formation of power blocks in the world. In fact India became one of the founder members of the non-aligned movement.
 Against racialism and colonialism.
• Committed to the development of other underdeveloped nations.
• The subcontinent of India has been one cultural unit throughout the ages, cutting across political boundaries.
Materialistic and Spiritualistic
• Known as land of spirituality
• The living expression of the simplicity and profundity of her people
CULTURAL IDENTITY, RELIGION, REGION AND ETHNICITY
• cultural identities are based on various factors such as religion and region.
• Regional identities are more real.
People of different religions and jatis may have common regional cultural traits like language, food, dress, values and also the worldview.

• Ethnic culture is strong among the tribal groups.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Three significant influences
• Westernization,
 Adopted by the aristocracy and members of the civil services.
• Emergent national cultural style
 During the struggle for freedom
 Contributed to the unity of the country and provided commonness to culture.
• Popular culture.
 Product of mass media
 The impact of films
 Promoted issues that are of both traditional and public interest.
Spirituality and value based life style is the core of Indian culture but it has a scientific temperament too.


3. ANCIENT INDIA
It is important for you to be acquainted with the past to understand better what is happening in the India of today.
ANCIENT INDIA
• Neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan.
2700 BC
• Harappan civilization.
 Most of the sites developed on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.
 First known urban culture
 Town planning, sanitation, drainage system and broad well-laid roads
 Double storied houses of burnt- bricks each one of which had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well
 Great Bath, Granaries and Assembly Halls
 Agriculture was the main occupation
 Internal and external trade with Mesopotamia
 Excellent potters.
 Technical knowledge of metals and the process of alloying
 Bronze sculpture of a dancing girl
 Lothal was a dockyard
 Important Centre of sea trade
 Important town Dhaulavira (Gujarat), Kalibangam (Rajsthan)
 Worshipped plants and animals and the forces of nature
 Knew how to write
 Knew the art of spinning and weaving.
 First people to cultivate cotton
VEDIC CULTURE
• Spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
• Known as the Aryan culture.
• Four Vedas
 Rig Veda,
 Sama Veda,
 Yajur Veda
 Atharva Veda
• Erlier Vedic Period
 Represented by the RigVeda
• The later vedic period
 All other vedic literature including the Brahmanas, Arnyakas and Upanishads
• the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas, though compiled much later, represents this values.
Society and religion
• Women were treated with dignity and honour.
• Later Vedic period, society was divided into four VARNAS
 Brahamanas,
 Kshatriyas,
 Vaishyas
 Shudras.
• system of chaturashrama
 Brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and disciplined life in guru’s ashram),
 Grihastha (a period of family life),
 Vanaprastha (a stage of gradual detachment)
 Sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from worldly life)
• Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom, had access to education and were often free to choose their partners through swayamvara.
• Change in religious practices during the later Vedic period
• A new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the supreme position, while Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva completed the trinity.
• Religion became extremely ritualistic
Material life and economy
• Pastoral and agricultural people.
• Domesticated animals like cows, horses, sheeps, goats and dogs.
• Food consisting of cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk and various milk products.
• Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the expansion of agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains.
• Coins came into circulation.
By sixth century BC, there were some sixteen large territorial states in North India and upper Deccan known as Mahajanapadas. Important among them were Anga, Magadha, Kosala, Kashi, Kuru, and Panchala.
POPULAR RELIGIOUS REFORMS
Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism
• The Brahmins had developed a vested interest demanding large charities at the end of the scarifies. As a result, the sacrifices became very costly. Moreover, the Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other varnas and became arrogant. This led to the unpopularity of Brahminism and a need for reforms was felt.
• The reforms led by the Kshatriyas and aided by the poorer masses who could not afford the high cost of sacrifices, resulted in the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism around sixth century BC.
• Influenced the religious beliefs and several practices of Hinduism.
Jainism
• Founder of Jainism is believed to be Rishabhadeva,
• The last tirthankara Mahavira developed and gave final shape to the Jain doctrines.
• Five vows
 Not to tell lies;
 Not to injure life;
 Not to own property;
 Not to steal;
 To maintain chastity (celibacy).
• Three-fold path of Right belief, Right Conduct and Right Knowledge.
• Most of followers of Jainism belong to the trading community.
• Sthanakas
Buddhism
• Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC),
• Four Noble Truths.
• Middle path.
• The eightfold path comprises:
 Rightunderstanding
 Rightthought
 Rightspeech
 Rightaction
 Rightlivelihood
 Righteffort
 Rightmindfulness
 Rightconcentration
• Viharas
• Buddhism was also split in three parts
 The hinayana
 The mahayana
 Vajrayana
• Spread of buddhism
 sri lanka,
 Myanmar,
 Cambodia,
 Vietnam,
 China,
 Japan,
 Thailand,
 Korea,
 Mongolia
 Afghanistan.
• Hindu tradition even accepted the Buddha as one of the incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu.
THE PERSIAN INVASION AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIAN CULTURE
• The Achaemenid rulers of Persia or Iran took advantage of the political disunity of this region.
• Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, and his successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh.
• Naval expedition of Skylax encouraged trade and commerce between Persia and India
• The administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was influenced in some measure by that of the Achaemenid rulers of Persia
• The Persian scribes brought into India a new style of writing. It is called kharoshthi
THE GREEK (MACEDONIAN) INVASION AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIAN CULTURE
• Fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Persians fought for supremacy over West Asia. The Achaemenid empire was finally destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership of Alexander of Macedon. He conquered Asia Minor, Iraq and Iran and then marched towards India because of her fabulous wealth.
• Alexander’s invasion brought Europe, for the first time, in close contact with India,
• Chandragupta defeated one of Alexander’s generals, Seleucus Nikator and brought the whole of north western India upto Afghanistan under his control.
• Greek art is found in the development of Indian sculpture as well.
• Learnt the art of making well-shaped and beautifully designed gold and silver coins
• Influence on Indian astrology as well.
• Indian philosophy and religion which filtered into the Roman empire flowed through the channel opened by Alexander.
ASHOKA THE GREAT: REPRESENTING THE ACME OF INDIAN CULTURE
• His policies of universal peace, non-violence and religious harmony find no parallel in the monarchs of the world.
• Policies were oriented towards the welfare of his people.
• Importance to respecting brahmins, and servants, obedience to elders, abstention from killing living beings,
• He states that in honouring of other sects lies the honour of one’s own sect.
• By giving his empire a common Dhamma, a common language, and practically one script (Brahmi) he brought further political unification.
• He sent ambassadors to the Greek kingdoms and the West.
• Thevarna system popularly known as the caste system which had arisen in thevedic Age now became well established and gradually became the dominant form of social organization throughout India.
ART AND ARCHITECTURE: MAURYAN BEGINNINGS
• The best preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands at Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar)
• The bull capital from Rampura - example of Mauryan sculpture.
• The most famous capital is the one at Sarnath, which shows four lions and the Dharmachakra.
• The language that has been used in nearly all the inscriptions and Prakrit which appears to have become the lingua franca of the country and in the Brahmi script the earliest known Indian script.
• The Lomash Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the Sudama caves are examples of rock cut caves architecture.
POST - MAURYAN CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
• the Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were foreigners, they were slowly absorbed into the local population. Since they were warriors, the law givers assigned them the status of Kshatriyas.

• Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism.
• 200 BC to about 3rd century A.D.
 profound changes took place in the economic and political life and vital developments in different aspects of cultural life of our country i.e. religion, art and science as well as technology.
 There was a significant advancement in foreign trade both by land and by sea,
• The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka, who convened the fourth Buddhist Council to finalise its teachings.
Art and Sculpture
• He also set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha.
• Gandhara school of art. This school borrowed features from both the Greek and Roman art forms.
• Besides the images of Buddha, which were made in large numbers, statues of Mahavira were also produced.
Deccan and South India
• The Satavahanas in the Deccan held an important position under the Mauryas.
• They extended their kingdom, cleared forests, made roads and administered their State well. New towns came up and trade was carried on with far off countries like Persia, Iraq and Combodia.
Kharavela of Kalinga
• Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra.
• Graet administrator as well as a brave warrior.
• He carried out works of piety and public utility, like building roads and gardens.
South India
• It was the region of the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas who were constantly at war with each other.
• South of the river Krishna and Tungabhadra
Sources
• Sangam literature.
• Ist century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. called the Sangam period
Cholas
Karikala was the most important ruler of this kingdom.
Many canals dug so that water from the river Cauvery could be used for irrigation purposes.
Follower of the Vedic religion.
Credited with many welfare activities.
Pandays
• Founded by a woman king.
Life and Culture
• Simple life.
• Music, dancing and poetry.
• Drums, flutes, pipes, etc. were popular.
Society
• The Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called Yavanas.
• They soon merged with the Indian society and adopted Indian names and inter-married.
The Age of Harshvardhana
• An efficient government.
• Subdue the petty warring rulers and bring them under his domain.
• Harsha’s religious activities
 Bana wrote Harsha’s famous biography, Harshcharita as well as the literary piece Kadambari.
 Buddhism and Hindu Religion.
 Inclined towards Buddhism.
Kingdoms of the Deccan and the South:
• Pulakesin was a powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
• Capital city Vatapi
• Trade relations with Arabia, Iran and the Red Sea port to the west, as well as with South-East Asia.
• Many of the sculptures of the Ellora caves were created at this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE GUPTA PERIOD
last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early fourth century A.D. and ends in about the 8th A.D.
• During the Gupta period art became more creative and Hindu gods and goddesses also came to be portrayed.
• Gupta coins - king on one side on the reverse Lakshmi or Sarswati
• Adequate expression in monuments and sculptures.
• Niches and corners of religious places with statues of gods and goddesses.
• The most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.
• Bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj
• Famous Ellora Caves.
Architecture
• rock cut caves (Ajanta) and temples, such as the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.
Painting
• The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near Gwalior) bear evidence of this.
THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS
• Pallavas were great patrons of
 art and architecture.
• ‘ratha’ at Mahabalipuram style
of temples
• Structural temples like the
Kailashanath and
Vaikunthperumal temples at
Kanchipuram.
• Temple building activity flourished in India from the 5th century AD onwards.
• North Indian temples were built in the Nagara style consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall),
• South were built in the Dravida style completed with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram.
• The village panchayat called sahha or ur had extensive powers. It had control over finances too. This body included several committees which looked after various aspects of village administration.
• The Dravida style of temple architecture
• Rajarajeshwar or Brihadeshwara temple.
• Great achievements in the field of sculpture.
• Sanskrit also became the language of the courts
• Tamil literatures also made great progress.
• The ancient period of Indian history came to an end, India had developed a culture which was marked by features that have characterized it ever since.
TRANSFORMATION OF VEDIC BRAHMANISM INTO PURANIC HINDUISM
• By the fourth century AD there came into being a famous Vaishnava work called ‘Shrimadbhagavad-purana’which taught devotion to Lord Krishna.
• The Gupta rulers especially provided filling to the Bhagavata Sect of Hinduism.
• Animals, plants, rivers and mountains were looked upon with reverence and cities like Banaras and Prayag became places of pilgrimage
• Idol worship became popular.
• Thus the prominent features of modern Hinduism took shape during the Gupta period.
NALANDA’S EMERGENCE AS A GREAT CENTRE OF LEARNING
• During Harsha’s reign
• Grammar, logic, epistemology and sciences were taught here.
• Thus university continued to be the centre of intellectual activity till the twelfth century.
CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA
• Brought to India by Saint Thomas in the first century A.D.
• It was most probably the frequent trade and movement between India and the west which was responsible for bringing this disciple of Lord Christ to India.
• A large community of christians known as Syrian Christians contine to reside in Kerala even today.
• The Christian Church has two major divisions
 The Roman Catholic church
 The Protestant church.
• The Bible contains two parts
 The old Testament
 The New Testament.


4. MEDIEVAL INDIA
LIFE OF PEOPLE UNDER DELHI SULTANATE
Society
• Four major groups.
 The aristocrats,
 The priests,
 The towns people
 The peasants.
• Aristocrats
 The sultan and his relatives, nobility and the landholders
 The Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu merchants and bankers
 Concentrated all the wealth as well as the power
 The sultan outmatched everyone in this
 Coins were issued in his name
 Even the nobility imitated his style and showed off their wealth
• The priests
 Brahmans in hindus and ulemas in the muslims
 Tax-free land for their maintenance
 Great influence on the muslim sultans and often influenced their policies
 Interested in worldly affairs.
• The town people
 Wealthy merchants, traders and artisans
 Nobility, the officers and the soldiers
 The administrative and military centers
 The sufi and bhakti saints
 Important temples and mosques had become pilgrim centers.
 The royal karkhanas or workshops
• The peasants
 Lived in the villages
 Paid huge taxes to the state as land revenue
 Very rigid caste system
 Intercaste marriages and intercaste dining was totally prohibited
 Exchange of ideas and customs took place.
Like those concerning food, dress, clothing and music, besides many others
Trade
• Banias, Marwaris and Multanis made trade their special vocation
• The banjaras traded in caravans
• Delhi was the centre for the incoming as well as outgoing goods.
• Rice from the East, sugar from Kanauj, wheat from the Doab and fine silks from the South.
• Luxury goods like metalware, ivory, jewellery, cotton textiles
• Goods from outside India like East Africa, Arabia and China also came to Delhi.
• The silver tanka (coin) introduced by Iltutmish
• The system of weights
Religious Condition
• Hinduism was in vogue.
 Uperstitious beliefs, rituals and sacrifices
 Caste system was very rigid.
• Islam was the opposite of what was in practise among the Hindus.
 Equality, brotherhood and oneness of God
 No dogmas in Islam.
 Simple doctrine and a democratic organisation
• It challenged the social pattern of society
• The emergence of the Bhakti movement and the Sufi movement
RISE OF ISLAM AND SUFISM
• First came to India in the eighth century AD
• Entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people and learned to live together in harmony
• Exchange of ideas and customs.
• Influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners, customs and intellectual pursuits.
• Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century AD in Arabia.
• He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this marked the beginning of the Hijira Era
• Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel.
• The five fundamental principles of Islam are:
 Tauhid(belief in Allah)
 Namaz(prayers, five times a day)
 Roza(fasting in the month of Ramzan)
 Zakat(giving of alms)
 Haj(pilgrimage to Mecca)
• Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees.
• There were four pious Caliphs.
• Islam talked of equality, brotherhood, and the existence of one God
This became cause of rise of both the Bhakti and the Sufi movements
Rise of Sufism
• Term used for Islamic mysticism
• Liberal in their religious outlook
• Believed in the essential unity of all religions
• Preached spirituality through music and doctrines
• Listened to poetry and music (sama) which were originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or Hindustani
• Originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India under the Turkish rule
• Sense of piety, tolerance, sympathy, concept of equality and friendly attitude attracted many Hindus, mostly from lower classes, to Islam.
• Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar
• Establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs.
• Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints) became the centres for the propagation of Islamic ideas.
• Patronized both by the aristocracy and the common people.
• Organised into religious orders or silsilahs.
• These silsilahs were named after their founders such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadi. And Naqshbandis.
• Fourteen silsilahs
• Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in Pakistan) developed as important centres of Sufism.
• Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of siddhas and yogic postures.
POLITICAL BACKGROUND
• The rulers of Delhi during 1206 to 90 were Mamluk Turks
• Followed by > Khiljis > Tughlaqs > Sayyids  > Lodis till 1526.
 rule over a territory on behalf of the Khalifa or Caliph,
 the names of the Khalifa and the Sultan used to be read in the khutha, (Friday prayers) by the local Imams.
• In 1526 the Delhi Sultans were replaced by the Mughals
 initially ruled from Agra and later from Delhi till 1707.
 continued only nominally till 1857 when the dynasty ended
Afghan ruler Sher Shah
• kept Mughal Humayu away from throne for 15 years (1540-55)
• outstanding achievements.
• construction of several roads
the most important being Sarak-i-Azam or Grand Trunk Road extending from Sonargaon (now in Bangladesh) to Attock (now in Pakistan) and run through Delhi and Agra a distance of 1500 kos.
• beautiful coins in gold, silver and copper
Mughal emperor Akbar
• Ruled from 1556-1605
• A sincere effort to foster harmony by discouraging racial, religious and cultural biases
• Develop friendly relations with the hindus
• Entered into matrimonial alliances with the rajput
• The political unification of the country and the establishment of an all powerful central government with a uniform system of administration
• A great patron of art, architecture and learning.
• Started a faith called din-i-illahi
• Navratna
 Mulla do pyaza
 Hakin humam
 Abdur rahim khan e khanan
 Abul tayal
 Tansen,
 Raja todar mal
 Raja man singh
 Faizi
 Birbal
• Debate on religious issues
Liberalism and tolerance was continued by his successors, jahangir and shah jahan but abandoned by aurangzeb.
Disintegration of the Mughal empire
• Endless wars in different parts of the country (especially in South India)
• The rise of the Marathas in the south
• The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali
• Unrest amongst the nobility in the court
• The rise of the Sikhs in north- western India
Economically India was still the biggest exporter in the world and had great wealth, but it was left far behind in the process of modernisation.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
• Distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture
 Dome
 Lofty towers or minarets
 Arch
 The vault
• The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage.
• The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the days of Shah Jahan
 Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra.
• The structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex, the forts at Agra and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore
• Mosques, tombs of kings and dargahs came to dominate the landscape.
Coinage
• Numismatics (the study of coins)
• Major source of information for any period in history.
• Their designs, calligraphy and mint marks give us plenty of interesting information on this period.
• From the royal titles, the name and place of minting we can find out the extent of the monarch’s kingdom as well as his status.
• Muhammad Tughlaq’s coins were minted at Delhi, Daulatabad and several other provincial capitals and had at least twenty-five different varieties.
• Legends found on the coins
The warrior in the cause of God’ and ‘he who obeys the Sultan obeys the Compassionate’, are a few examples.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Teachings were similar to those of the Sufis
• Popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders
• Villages also flocked to listen
• Belief was in the need to unite with God
• Concept of guru
• Stress on love or devotion as the basis of the relationship with God.
• Attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of worship.
• Disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their religious gatherings.
• Entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make it comprehensible
• Saints belonged mainly from the lower castes.
• Stressed the need for tolerance among humans and religions.
• Long known in the South.
• Hymns and stories by the Alvars and the Nayannars of the Tamil devotional cult
Guru Nanak
• Khatri family in the village
of Talwandi (Now Nankana)
• Left home for the company of
 saints and pirs.
• Composed hymns and sang them to
the accompaniment of the ‘rabab’, which is a musical
instrument
• Emphasised love and devotion for the one and only God
• Denounsed idol worship, pilgrimages,
sacrifices and rituals
• Demanded purity of character and conduct
Ramanuja
• From the South
• Taught in the langauge of the common people.
• Disciple was Ramananda who took his Guru’s message to the northern parts of India.
Ramananda
• Wanted to rid the Hindu religion of its evil customs and practices.
• Born at Allahabad and educated at Varanasi.
• All men were equal in the eyes of God
• Followers
 Kabir was a weaver
 Sadhana was a butcher
 Ravidasa was a cobbler
 Sena was a barber.
Kabir
• Criticised the existing social order
• Called for hindu-muslim unity
• The son of a muslim weaver,
• Denounced idol worship
• Emphasised the unity of god.
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
• From Bengal
• Devotee of Lord Krishna.
• Condemned the caste system
• Emphasised on the equality of all
• Trance singing devotional songs
Mirabai
• Composed and sang songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
Namadeva

• Marathi Tailor
• Created Poetry
Popularity of the Bhakti Movement
• Important reason
 Hallenged the caste system and the superiority of the
brahmanas.
 Wanted a religion which could satisfy both their rationality as well as emotions.
 No longer satisfied with the old religion
• In northern india
• Two streams
• 1. Nirguna bhakti
 Devotees of a formless god
 Kabir and nanak
• 2. Saguna bhakti
 Devotees of rama, the son of dasharatha, or krishna, the son of devaki and vasudeva.
 Tulsidas (ramcharita manas)
 Surdas (sursagar)
 Raskhan, a Muslim poet (devotee of Lord Krishna)
Important feature of bhakti movement
• Oneness of god
• Brotherhood
• Against caste or gender
• Surrender into god
• Intense personal devotion to god
• Chanting the name of god
• Came the guru or spiritual teacher
Person who had realised god and hence was capable of leading
• System of pahul.
• The sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted
• The sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony, called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom (the saint-soldier concept).
• Literary compositions, rendered into geet, qawali, etc united the people,
• Stimulated the development of regional languages.
DEVELOPMENT OF FOLK ARTS
Dance
• Several occasions associated with agricultural operations like the tilling of soil, sowing of saplings, picking of cotton, pulling out the weeds and many other social functions provided opportunities for singing and dancing
 Advent of rains became occasions for dancing and merry-making
 Special pujas offered in the temples
 Sing till late into the night
 Peculiar dance form with a local flavour
Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gïddha, Bamboo dance, Lavani
• The tamasha and the lavani forms of dance drama were developed in Maharashtra;
• The Pandavanis in central India
• Merasis in northern India
Print Art
• In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis, shirts and ghagras.
• In Punjab, the girls created beautiful phulkaris.
• In and around Lucknow, came up the chikan work on shirts, salwars, odhanis and even sarees
Other Types
• The puppeteer, the bard and the mime moved from place to place
• The acrobat and the juggler
• Martial arts were developed
• Wrestling has been popular all over India
PAINTING
• Influenced by Islamic culture
• Humayun brought painters from Persia
 Mir Sayid Ali and Abdus Samad who nurtured the tradition of painting manuscript.
 Dastan-e-Amir Hamza,
• Flowering of portrait
• Miniature paintings
• Painters tried to paint the classical ragas, thereby giving form and colour to such abstract conceptions as music.
• Seasons or baramasa paintings were similarly given artistic forms.
• Mughal school of painting
• Akbar as a liberal ruler extended Hindu painters like Daswant and Basawan Lal
 A fusion of Persian and Indian styles (of painting) during his period.
• The European influence on Indian painting
• Jahangir, a famous painter
 Famous painters like Ustad and Abul Hasan
• Mansur was famous for his miniature painting
• The Rajput and the Pahari schools of painting also received encouragement.
• The upper classes in society started patronising painters.
• As a result, the havelis (big mansions) of the rich and temples were profusely embellished
• The Mughal School of painting from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century gave rise to the Indo-Persian school of miniature art.
• Signing on the miniatures
• Important works as the Changeznama, Zafarnama and the Ramayana.
• Aurangzeb stopped patronising music and painting
Music
• Tansen in court of akabar composed new ragas
• These musicians entertained the emperors at different times of the day and in different seasons with appropriate ragas.
• Synthesis of indo iranian music during the turko-afghan rule in india
In north
• A distinct school known as the hindustani school of music came into being and its speciality lay in producing sweet and rapturous melodies to suit different moods of life.
• The ragas and the raginis were personified accordingly.
• Khayal, thumri and ghazal were also elaborated
In the south
• Carnatic school of music developed.
Indo-Mughal Culture
• The practice of jharokha darshan
• Court practice of sijda
• Concentrated religious and political power
RISE OF MODERN INDIAN LANGUAGES
Urdu
• Originated around Delhi
• Developed as a camp language in the army of Allauddin Khilji when they were stationed in the Deccan around fourteenth century AD.
• The states of Bijapur and the Golconda in the Deccan became the cradles of Urdu literature
• Developed its own grammar and became a distinct language.
• Used by the elite as well
• Amir Khusrau composed poetry in this language
• Beautiful prose, short stories, novels and drama were written in Urdu during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
• In the first half of the ninteenth century Urdu journalism played a very important role during the struggle for independence.
Nearly all other modern Indian languages like Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Khari Boli, Punjabi, gujarati, Marathi, Sindhi, Kashmiri as well as the four South Indian languages -Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam – came to acquire their present form and developed during this period.
NEW FAITHS
• Two new religious faiths flourished in India
 Sikhism
 Zoroastrianism.
Sikhism
• Sikhs believe that God to Guru Nanak revealed their religion, whose spirit entered the second and the subsequent gurus till the tenth Guru.
• The students of history and religion think that the seeds for the birth and growth of this religion were present in the Bhakti movement, in its nirguna branch.
• Basically believe in a formless God, equality of all mankind, need of a guru and the pahul tradition.
• The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things.
 The Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and other allied saints.
 Standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first written.
 The site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh community are issued.
• The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in 1699.
• He gives five vows

 Keeping of kesh (long hair and a beard),
 Kangha (comb),
 Kada (a metallic bangle),
 Kirpan (a sword)
 Kaccha (an underwear extending to a little above the knees)
Consequently, these symbols became the distinguishing marks of a Sikh.
• He further added that after his death the Adi Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs and they have to pay obeisance to this holy book.
• Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism
Zoroastrianism
• founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the eighth century BC.
• in the region now known as Persia.
• worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form of Ahura Mazda and Ahura Man.
• ethical doctrine of kindness and charity.
• doctrines are enshrined in the Zend Avesta.
• spread over the whole of Persia and remained the dominant religion till the eighth century AD
• when Muslims conquered this region. Most of the Parsis migrated to different parts of the world. They also came to India and settled at Navsari in Gujarat,
• Famous Persons
 Dadabhai Naoroji
the famous nationalist leader and a Parsi, who exposed the hollowness of the British claim of civilizing India and not exploiting it.
 Jamshedji Tata
a pioneering Indian industrialist. He established an iron and steel industry in India in the face of the toughest competition posed by the British steel mills and yet continued to prosper.
• a large number of public charities
• Zorastrianism is not a proselytising religion and no new entrants are accepted into its fold under any circumstances.
SOUTH INDIA
Between the ninth and eleventh centuries AD
• Cholas was ruling the Cholamandalam region
• Developed a strong army, besides a powerful navy
• Developed democratic institutions at the village level
• Buddhism and Jainism flourished in this region.
• Literature, fine arts, sculpture and metal castings
The fourteenth century
• Rise of a new state Vijayanagara now called Karnataka.
• To the north of this state across the Tungabhadra river rose a new Islamic state, called the Bahamani, now known as Andhra Pradesh.
• In the Cholamandalam region, the Tamil language was popular.
• In Karnataka, Kannada, in Andhra, Telegu and in Kerala, Malyalam flourished, all having different scripts.
• Originally the entire region spoke Tamil, as it is a very old language.
• During the Chola period, Kanchi became a great seat of learning.
• Remains of Vijayanagara found in Hampi


MODERN INDIA
all those who came to India from outside such as the Turks, the Afghans, and the Mughals made India their home. But the British colonial rulers always remained foreigners to this land.
they brought profound social, economic and political changes to suit their interests and in the process left deep imprints on many aspects of Indian culture.
RISE OF THE WEST AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA
• From 1450 onwards, three important developments had changed the shape of Europe:
 The invention of printing press,
 The beginning and the spread of the Renaissance and the Reformation movements
 The discovery of new trade routes
• Great progress in the fields of science, exploration and gunnery
• For trade in India: Portuguese > Dutch > French > British
• For about two centuries India remained under her domination where her entire human resources were recklessly exploited and her wealth was drained away for the benefit of the ruling nation
• British domination of India was built upon successive phases.
 The first phase consisted of taking hold of the Indian trade.
 In the second phase, the British took control of the production activities in a manner that would suit their export objectives
 The third phase was an intensified phase of British Imperialism and colonial exploitation
• With the coming of the industrial revolution in Europe,
 Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the foreign market
 1813, these British manufacturers succeeded in abolishing the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian trade. With this India became an economic colony of industrial England.
 Foreign goods were given free entry
 Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily
 So the trade from India virtually came to a stop
 India had become an excellent consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw materials by the year 1813 A.D.
 Introduced steam ships and railways
 Opened a vast market to the British
 Facilitated export of Indian raw material abroad
 The railways connected the raw material producing areas with the exporting ports
• The railways played an important role in the national awakening of the country
• 1853 that Dalhousie opened the first telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra and also introduced the postal service in India
INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY: ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
• Agriculture was the main occupation
• Foreign trade was flourishing under the mughals.
 India imported pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits from the persian gulf region;
 Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from arabia;
 Tea, porcelain and silk came into india from china;
 Luxury goods were also brought in from tibet, singapore, indonesian islands, africa and europe.
 Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar, pepper and many other things.
 India’s cotton textiles were famous all over the world.

• In spite of such a favourable balance of trade, india’s economic condition could not improve
 Because of constant warfare
 There were revolts of the sikhs, jats,
 Foreign invasions, like nadir shah (1739 a.d.) and ahmad shah abdali (1761),
• No unity of pattern in the social and cultural life
• Caste rules were to be observed in matters of marriage, diet, inter- dining as well as in choosing a profession
• Any one found disobeying rules was to be thrown out of the community.
• In the field of science that india, which was so advanced, had by now neglected her mathematics and sciences
• Teacher were respected in society during those times
 The students were taught reading and writing along with arithmetic
 Not patronised by the state, but by local rulers, members of the aristocracy and benevolent contributors
Hindu-Muslim Relations
• Friendly relations
• Religious tolerance
• An equal respect
• Difficult to distinguish one from the other.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
• The condition of women
 The birth of a girl child was considered to be unfortunate
 Married off in their childhood
 Polygamy
 No right to property or divorce
 Perpetual widowhood
 Presence was considered inauspicious
 Inter-caste marriages were not allowed.
• Muslim Women
 Practice of purdah, polygamy, lack of education and rights to property
SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMERS
• Christian priests came to India
• Started opening schools
• Started the printing press and magazines for disseminating Christian precepts and literature
• English education was introduced
• Though the purpose of introducing English education was to fulfil British political and administrative needs, it opened the windows for Indians to the West
• New ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality and freedom
• Acted as a cementing force
Ram Mohan Roy
• Harbinger of the modern age in India
• Role in reforming the Hindu society and the reawakening of India
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy cited extensively from the religious texts to show that this was not true
• Ritual of sati
 Took up cudgels against it and ultimately got it banned
• Founded the Brahmo Samaj
 Opposed idol worship, polytheism and ritualism.
• Debendra Nath Tagore (1817-1905) succeeded Raja Ram Mohan Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj
• Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) took over the leadership from Tagore
• Laid emphasis on individual freedom, national unity, solidarity, democratization
• Became the first organized vehicle

Prarthana Samaj and Ranade
• By Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1867
• Reforms like inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage, widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of women and depressed classes
• According to Ranade, rigidity in religion would not permit success in social, economic and political spheres
Ramakrishna Paramhansa
• Ramakrishan mission
• By swami vivekananda to regenerate indian society
• Liberty, free thinking and equality
• Promoted the vedanta philosophy
Theosophical Society and Annie Besant
• promoted studies of ancient Indian religions, philosophies and doctrine
Narayana Guru
• Great saint of South India
• Well versed in Malayalam, Sanskrit and Tamil
• Decided to work to bring the Nayar and the Ezhava communities together
• Improve the spiritual as well as the social life of the people of Kerala
Muslim Reform Movement
• Sir syed ahmad khan
• Modern education
• Denounced purdah, polygamy and easy divorce
• Started the aligarh movement
• Established the muhammadan anglo-oriental college at aligarh
• Centre for spreadng sciences and culture
• Later grew into aligarh muslim university
• It gave them a common langauge— urdu
Unfortunately, in his later years Syed Ahmad Khan encouraged the Indian Muslims not to join the National Movement. He felt that they needed education and not politics. In a way he encouraged the forces of communalism and separatism at this stage
Social Reform
• Two main objectives
 Emancipation of women and giving them equality with men,
 Removal of caste rigidities, especially the abolition of untouchability and the upliftment of the depressed classes

• Emancipation of Women
 Attempts have been made by the State and reformers to do away with the practice of early marriage by legislation
 In 1930 the Sharda Act was passed fixing the minimum age for marriage for boys at 18 and girls at 14
 Maharishi Karve was awarded the Bharat Ratna for his great work in the field
 He started schools for girls, as well as working houses for widows and destitutes
 This movement gained momentum and many schools and colleges were opened for women
Struggle against Caste System
• By the Ramakrishn Mission and the Arya Samaj
• Shuddhi Movement
• Ambedkar opened many schools and colleges for their benefit
• Mahatma Gandhi, on the other hand, championed the cause of untouchables whom he called Harijans
• He asked for temples to be thrown open to them as well as for equal treatment to them
• Constitution of Free India has given the legal and constitutional support to this movement
• Untouchability was declared a punishable offence
Swami Dayanand
• Mastery over the Sanskrit language and the Vedas
• In 1875, he founded the Arya Samaj
• Aim was to propagate the true knowledge of the Vedas
• Opposed untouchability
• Polytheism, avataravada and ritualism
• Slogan was ‘go back to the Vedas’
• The Vedas were printed in India under his patronage
• Most important work was Satyartha Prakasha (The Light of Truth).
• Followers started a Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School and College in Lahore
• Now has over 750 institutions under one umbrella.
other equally well-known personalities and organizations like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Radhakanta Deb, the Theosophical Society and the Arya Samaj
Jyotirao Govindrao Phule (1827-90)
According to him the only way to improve the lot of the lower castes and women was through education
• Started the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873
• Aim was to seek social justice
• Elected to the Poona Municipality as a member.
Pandita Rama Bai (1858-1922)
• Travel from place to place, giving discourses on the Puranas
• Scholar and religious speaker
• The pundits of Kolkata also invited her to address the people
• She was drawn to the Prarthana Samaj
• Started Sharda Sadan, a home for widows.
Mahadev Govid Ranade, R.G. Bhadarkar, Dadabhai Naoroji, Behramji Malbari were other well known personalities, who worked for social reforms in Western India.
PRESS AND THE GROWTH OF MODERN INDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE
• In 1798, lithography was invented
 It used the specially prepared surface of a stone for printing a script, a picture, or drawing
• From about 1820 onwards, hundreds of pamphlets and books were printed
• As a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, the press had become a powerful tool for influencing public opinion.
• Printing presses were not costly
 Encouraged a large number of writers to produce literature in different Indian languages.
• Enrich our cultural heritage
• Awakening of the Indians.
• Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers were published almost in every language.
• Novels, essays and poems played a significant role in generating nationalism
 Bankim Chandra’s Anandamatha,
 Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan,
 Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s Bharat Durdasha,
 Lakshminath Bezbarua’s works in Assamese,
 Subramaniam Bharti’s writing in Tamil
 Altaf Hussain’s works in Urdu
Role of Newspapers
• Become a powerful and an important instrument for creating, spreading, influencing and sharpening public opinion
• Helped in promoting a pan-indian consciousness and in giving important political education to the people of India
• Some important Newspapers
• Bengal
 The Hindoo Patriot (English)
 The Amrita Bazar Patrika (English)
• Bombay
 Maharatha (English),
 Kesari (Marathi)
• Madras
 The Hindu (English),
 Swadeshmitran (Tamil)
• Punjab
 The Tribune (English)
 Kohinoor, Akhbar Am (Urdu)
INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Major achievement
• Secular and democratic republic
• Parliamentary system of governance
• Integration of the erstwhile princely states
• Economic planning
• Commendable progress in the fields of science and technology.
• Heard with respect in international meetings
• The issue of india becoming a permanent member of the un security council is similarly gaining wide acceptance today.
Nationalist Movement—The Beginning
• British imperialistic colonialism
 Chief cause of India’s backwardness in every sphere
 Indians were now coming to realise this truth
 Peasants and the workers were the worst vicitims
 Industrialists and the capitalists were also not satisfied
• By the 19th century all Indians were united in that, they had all realised they had a common enemy—the Britishers
• The Britishers did help in bringing about administrative and economic unification of the country.
 Communication systems of railway, telegraph and post
 Roads and motor transport
 Western thought and education
 Modern ideas of democracy, humanism, nationalism and sovereignty
• Press and literature

 Revival of the ancient glory of India
• The intensification of anti-British feelings due to…
 The racial arrogance and discrimination on the part of the British rulers in India,
 The agitation of the Britishers against the Ilbert Bill,
 Lord Lytton’s anti-India measures and the holding of the lavish British King’s Durbar in India when many Indians were dying due to famine
• Indian National Congress, started by A.O. Hume in 1885
 It did succeed in creating political awareness and a feeling of unity.
The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of the British master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. The British were happy that they had succeeded in separating the 62 million Muslims from the Hindus. Thus arose the evil monster of communalism in our country.
The Home Rule Movement
• After first world war, two Home Rule Leagues were set up
 One was started by Tilak at Poona
 Other by Annie Besant at Madras.
• Aimed at the achievement of Swaraj or self-government
 Got definite goal to achieve.
• Avoided violent or revolutionary methods.
• Worked as auxiliary units of the Congress.
1905-1918 Period
• The Era of Extremists
• Criticised the Modertates on these grounds…
 Failure to define India’s political goals,
 Using mild and ineffective methods
 Failure to make the movement a mass movement
• Led by the trio popularly known as - Lal, Bal, Pal
 Lala Laj Pat Rai,
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
 Bipin Chandra Pal
• Bankim Chandra, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda Saraswari and Aurobindo Ghosh inspired the extremist philosophy
• Curzon’s repressive policies
 Divide and Rule became the immediate cause of agitation
• ‘Boycott’ of foreign goods and adoption of ‘Swadeshi’ or indigeneously produced goods.
• The British government used all kinds of violent repressive measures to supress it.
1919-1934 Period
• Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms with the Government of Indian Act, 1919
• The Rowlatt Act
 To supress political violence.
• Gandhi
 Used the political weapon called Satyagraha
 Champaran Satyagraha.
• The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place in Amritsar on April 13, 1919
• The Khilafat Movement started
 Aim was to pressurise the government to set right the wrongs done to the Muslims on the issue of Turkey.
• Khilafat Movement merged with the non co-operation movement
• Boycott of anything British including jobs, courts, schools, colleges, functions and goods
• Promotion of Swadeshi, removal of untouchability and promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity
• Revolutionary activities
 Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Rajguru, Sukhdev, Bismil, Ashfaqullah and many others
• Simon Commission
 For reviewing the political situation.
 No Indian was included
An outline of a constitution for India was drawn as Nehru Report in 1928
The Lahore Session of the Congress in 1929, the slogan of Purna Swaraj as the goal was adopted; 26th January, 1930 was celebrated as independence day.
• Salt Satyagraha
 Known as Dandi March, on 6th April, 1930
• Gandhi took up the cause of the ‘Depressed Classes’ and the ‘Untouchables’
 The Harijans Sewak Sangh was established.
• The Civil Disobedience Movement
• Round Table conference.
Achievement of Independence
• In 1935, Government of India Act was passed.
 Concept of All India Federation
 Provincial Autonomy
 Only 14 per cent of the population could vote
 Separate electroates were provided for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans, among others
 Discouraged the emergence of national unity,
 Encouraged separation and communalism.
• Elections were held in 1937.
 Congress Ministers were formed in seven out of the eleven provinces.
 Socialist ideas grew
• The British policy of divide and rule led to communalism.
• They tried to stem the rising nationalism by appeasing the Muslims and inducing them to ask for privileges as ‘minority rights’.
 As a result the two-nation theory was evolved in 1938 and clearly spelt out by Jinnah in 1940.
• Dr. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh (RSS).
 Aimed at awakening and organising the Hindu people
 ‘Shakha’ technique was evolved
• The Cripps Mission, in 1942 offered ‘Dominion Status’ to India at the end of the war. The Congress rejected the offer.
• The Quit India Movement for complete independence was launched by Gandhi and the Congress in August, 1942.
• Movement under the leadership of Jai Prakash Narain were also active
• Subhash Chandra Bose and Rash Behari Bose launched the Indian Independence League and the Indian National Army (INA), also called Azad Hind Fauj, at Singapore in 1943.
 With the help of the Japanese, the INA reached the Indian borders and captured Kohima.
 Japan was defeated by the British Army.
• After the end of the war, elections were held in India in the beginning of 1946. The Congress won most of the seats.
• The Cabinet Mission Plan
 Disagreement on the Plan between the Congress and the Muslim League
 Viceory invited the Congerss under Nehru to form an Interim Government.
 The Muslim League was furious and it resulted in communal riots and a lot of bloodshed.
 Stuck to their demand for a separate Muslim country—Pakistan.
• British Prime Minister Attlee announced in February, the Plan for the transfer of Power by June 1948.
• Lord Moundbatten was sent as Viceroy to India in March to make arrangements
• The Congress had to accept the partition of India due to many pressures, especially because of the widespread communal bloodshed and the uncompromising attitude of the League and Jinnah.
• India became free on 15th August, 1947 after partition. At the stroke of midnight (14th-15th August) transfer of power took place.
Source
NIOS books

By
Bharat Chaudhary